In epidemiology , infectivity refers to the ability of a pathogen to establish an infection. More specifically, infectivity is a pathogen s capacity for horizontal transmission that is, how frequently it spreads among host biology host s that are not in a parent child relationship. It is closely related to the concept of incidence epidemiology incidence , which is the measure of infectivity in a population. Infectivity has been shown to correlation positively correlate with virulence . This means that as a pathogen s ability to infect a greater number of hosts increases, so does the level of harm it brings to the host. ref cite journal title An empirical study of the evolution of virulence under both horizontal and vertical transmission last1 Stewart first1 AD last2 Logsdon first2 JM last3 Kelley first3 SE journal Evolution year 2005 month April volume 59 issue 4 pages 730 739 doi 10.1554 03 330 pmid 15926685 ref A pathogen s infectivity is subtly but importantly different from its transmissibility epidemiology transmissibility , which refers to a pathogen s capacity to pass from parent to child. References reflist External links http www.medterms.com script main art.asp?articlekey 24094 Def med stub Category Epidemiology de Infektiosit t eo Infektebleco es Infectividad it Infettivit nl Besmettelijkheid pl Zaka no ... more details
Image HIV genome.png thumb 402px HIV genome Viral infectivity factor , or Vif, is a protein found in HIV and other retrovirus es. Its role is to disrupt the antiviral activity of the human enzyme APOBEC See also APOBEC3G by targeting it for ubiquitination and cellular degradation. APOBEC is a cytidine deaminase enzyme that mutates viral nucleic acids. Vif is a 23 kilodalton protein that is essential for viral replication. Vif inhibits the cellular protein, APOBEC3G , from entering the virion during budding from a host cell by targeting it for proteasomal degradation. Vif hijacks the cellular Cullin5 E3 ubiquitin ligase in order to target APOBEC3G for degradation. In the absence of Vif, APOBEC3G causes hypermutation of the viral genome, rendering it dead on arrival at the next host cell. APOBEC3G is thus a host defence to retroviral infection which HIV 1 has overcome by the acquisition of Vif. Targeting vif has been suggested as a strategy for future HIV drug therapies. ref cite journal author Miller JH, Presnyak V, Smith HC title The dimerization domain of HIV 1 viral infectivity factor Vif is required to block APOBEC3G incorporation with virions journal Retrovirology volume 4 issue 1 pages 81 year 2007 pmid 18036235 doi 10.1186 1742 4690 4 81 url http www.retrovirology.com content 4 1 81 pmc 2222665 ref References Reflist External links MeshName vif Protein Viral proteins es Vif VIH DEFAULTSORT Viral Infectivity Factor Category Viral proteins virus stub ... more details
A microbicide is any compound or substance whose purpose is to reduce the infectivity of microbes, such as virus es or bacterium bacteria . One example is Wood Tar See also Antibiotics Bactericide Fungicide Microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases pharma stub Category Antimicrobials de Mikrobizid ... more details
Unreferenced date March 2007 orphan date October 2009 Host factor is a medicine medical term referring to the traits of an individual person or animal that affect susceptibility to disease , especially in comparison to other individuals. The term arose in the context of infectious disease research, in contrast to organism factors , such as the virulence and infectivity of a microbe. Host factors that may vary in a population and affect disease susceptibility can be innate or acquired. Some examples general health psychological characteristics and attitude nutrition al state social ties previous exposure to the organism or related antigen s haplotype or other specific genetic differences of immune function substance abuse Race classification of human beings race The term is now used in oncology and many other medical contexts related to individual differences of disease vulnerability. DEFAULTSORT Host Factor Category Diseases and disorders med stub ... more details
Vif may refer to Vif proper name VIF Internet , an Internet service provider in Montreal Vif, Is re Vif , a commune in France commune of the Is re d partement in France d partement in France Vif word Vif , a French tempo marking meaning lively or fast VIF abbreviation Valency interaction formula , a method for drawing molecular structural formulas Visiting International Faculty Program , a company, based in North Carolina , USA , that sponsors international teachers to teach in the USA. Value of in force , a life insurance term Variance inflation factor , a statistical term Virtual Interface , a networking term Viral infectivity factor of retrovirus es, specifically used in the context of HIV Vector Unit InterFace on PlayStation 2 Verify in field , a construction documentation term Vignerons ind pendants de France , an organisation that assists independent winemaker s in France . V lerenga Fotball , a Norwegian football club V lerenga Ishockey , a Norwegian ice hockey club V lerengens IF V lerengens Idrettsforening , a Norwegian sports club disambig da VIF es Vif fr VIF it VIF scn VIF sv VIF ... more details
A peplomer is a glycoprotein spike on a virus viral capsid or viral envelope ref cite book title Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary edition 3rd year 2007 publisher Elsevier Elsevier, Inc as cited in cite web title peplomer work The Free Dictionary publisher Farlex accessdate 30 Mar 2011 url http medical dictionary.thefreedictionary.com peplomer year 2011 ref . These protrusions will only bind to certain receptor biochemistry receptors on the host Cell biology cell they are essential for both host biology host specificity and viral infectivity . The term peplomer is typically used to refer to a grouping of heterologous proteins on the virus surface that function together. The tail fibers of some bacteriophages , especially the Enterobacteria phage T4 T4 like phages, are modified peplomers. See also Virus Glycoprotein Receptor biochemistry T4 phage Viral entry Viral life cycle Category Virology Category Microbiology References reflist Virus stub de Peplomer it Peplomero pt Pepl mero ... more details
italic title Plasmodium atheruri is a species of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia . Like all members of this genus it is parasitic on vertebrate and insect host biology host s. The natural vertebrate host is the Africa n porcupine Atherurus africanus but it is possible to infect the large vesper mouse Calomys callosus and Meriones unguiculatus . Taxobox name Plasmodium atheruri image caption image image width regnum Protista phylum Apicomplexa classis Aconoidasida ordo Haemosporida familia Plasmodiidae genus Plasmodium species P. atheruri binomial Plasmodium atheruri Description This species was described in 1958 by den Berghe, Peel, Chardome and Lambrecht. Exoerythrocytic schizogony in this species usually lasts 4 to 6 days but occasionally schizont s have been found in the liver at day 8. Two types of infection are recognised an acute form characterised by large trophozoite s, schizonts with 8 to 16 merozoite s, gametocyte s and infectivity to Anopheles species and a chronic form following the acute form by 15 to 21 days and which is characterized by small trophozoites and schizonts producing 4 merozoites. Vectors Anopheles machardyi Anopheles smithii Anopheles stephensi Geographic occurrence This species is found in Africa . References Reflist DEFAULTSORT Plasmodium Atheruri Category Plasmodium plasmodium stub id Plasmodium atheruri ... more details
Phenol soluble modulins are a family of protein toxin s that are soluble in phenol phenols and produced by Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus CA MRSA , which are thought to be the cause of severe infections. Non methicillin resistant bacteria were not found to produce these toxins. Although the toxins are produced in all Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains, the more virulent CA MRSA strains are typically associated with higher production. Genetic analysis demonstrated that the PSM alpha protein, product of the psm alpha gene cluster , was associated with the enhanced virulence enhanced destruction of white blood cell s, presumably the key to the higher infectivity. Expression of the psm alpha genes appeared to vary, dependent upon unknown factors specific to each particular infection. ref R Wang et al. Identification of novel cytolytic peptides as key virulence determinants of community associated MRSA . Nature Medicine DOI 10.1038 nm1656 2007 . ref References references Category Staphylococcaceae Category Bacterial diseases Category Occupational safety and health Category Toxins ... more details
Orphan date October 2009 Replikins are a group of peptides , whose increase in concentration in virus or other organism proteins is associated with rapid replication. It is often measured in number of replikins per 100 amino acids. This particular group of peptides have been found to play a significant role in predicting both infectivity and lethality of various viral strains. In particular, this group allowed the prediction of the A H1N1 pandemic almost one year before onset. ref http www.sciencedaily.com releases 2009 06 090602161944.htm Efforts To Quickly Develop Swine Flu Vaccine ref A method for identifying replikins was patented by Samuel and Elenore S. Bogoch in 2001. ref http www.freshpatents.com Replikin peptides and antibodies therefore dt20090528ptan20090137778.php Replikin peptides and antibodies therefore ref The peptide group was first identified by a proprietary company called Replikins, who have trademarked the name Replikin Count . The patent application in references refers to patent class 530324000 also see http www.freshpatents.com dt20090115ptan20090017052.php References Reflist External links http www.replikins.com Replikins web site See also 2009 flu pandemic Category Peptides Biochem stub ... more details
The following is a list of types of poison by intended use Algicide a substance used for killing and preventing the growth of algae Avicide any substance which can be used to kill bird s Biocide a chemical substance capable of killing life living organisms , usually in a selective way Fungicide a chemical compound or biological organism used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores Microbicide any compound or substance whose purpose is to reduce the infection infectivity of microbe s Germicide a disinfectant Bactericide a substance that kills bacteria Viricide a chemical agent which kills viruses outside the body Herbicide a substance used to kill unwanted plants wikt parasiticide Parasiticide any substance used to kill parasite s Pesticide a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest organism pest Acaricide pesticide s that kill mite s Insecticide a pesticide used against insect s Molluscicide pesticide s against molluscs Nematocide a type of chemical pesticide used to kill parasitic nematode s roundworms Rodenticide a category of pest control chemicals intended to kill rodent s Spermicide a substance that kills sperm Category Toxicology Category Poisons ... more details
Unreferenced date April 2010 Introduction Bacteriophage P2 is a temperate phage that infects E. coli . It is a tailed virus with a contractile sheath and is thus classified in the family Myoviridae and the order Caudovirales , tailed viruses. Phage P2 has a double stranded DNA genome packaged in an icosahedral capsid with a diameter of 60 nm that is connected to a 135 nm long tail. The tail ends in a baseplate which is the control hub for phage infectivity. The baseplate includes 6 tail fibers which initially bind to receptors on the bacterial cell wall and a tail spike protein that subsequently binds irreversibly to other receptors on the cell wall. File phageP2.jpg Phage P2 is a representative member of the Myoviridae There are three families in the order Caudovirales . The Siphoviridae have long flexible tails and constitute the majority of the tailed viruses. Myoviridae have long rigid tails and are fully characterized by the tail sheath that contracts upon phage attachment to bacterial host. The smallest family of tailed viruses are podoviruses phage with short, leg like tails . virus stub Category Viruses ... more details
Taxobox Color parameter is not needed automatically assigned name Spumavirus virus group vi familia Retroviridae subfamilia Spumaretrovirinae genus Spumavirus type species Simian foamy virus subdivision ranks Species subdivision African green monkey simian foamy virus br Macaque simian foamy virus br Bovine foamy virus br Equine foamy virus br Feline foamy virus A spumavirus or foamyvirus is a genus of the retroviridae family biology family . Spumaviruses are exogenous viruses that have specific morphology biology morphology with prominent surface peplomer spikes . The virions contain significant amounts of double stranded full length DNA , and assembly is rather unusual in these viruses. Normally, the viral envelope envelope membrane is acquired by budding through the endoplasmic reticulum . However, in, for example, the equine foamy virus EFV , budding from the cytoplasmic membrane occurs. Some examples of this virus are the chimpanzee foamy virus, simian foamy virus and the human foamy virus . While spumaviruses will form characteristic large vacuoles in their host cells while in vitro , there is no disease association in vivo . ref name Acheson cite book author Acheson, NH title Fundamentals of Molecular Virology edition 1st ed. publisher John Wiley & Sons year 2007 isbn 0 471 35151 2 ref References reflist Further reading Santillana Hayat M, Valla J et al. Inhibition of the in vitro infectivity and cytopathic effect of human foamy virus by dideoxynucleosides . AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1996 Oct 10 12 15 1485 90. External links http www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov books bv.fcgi?rid rv.section.7999 NCBI Spumavirus MeshName Spumavirus http www.expasy.org viralzone all by species 10.html Viralzone Spumavirus Retroviruses Category Retroviruses virus stub de Spumaviren es Spumavirus ... more details
No footnotes date February 2011 Hemagglutination , or haemagglutination , is a specific form of Agglutination biology agglutination that involves red blood cell s RBCs . It has two common uses in the laboratory blood typing and the Virus Quantification quantification of virus dilutions. Blood Typing Blood type can be determined by using antibody antibodies that bind to the ABO blood group system A or B blood group in a sample of blood. For example, if antibodies that bind the A blood group are added and agglutination occurs, the blood is either type A or type AB. To determine between type A or type AB, antibodies that bind the B group are added and if agglutination does not occur, the blood is type A. In blood grouping the patient s serum is tested against RBCs of known blood groups and also the patient s RBCs are tested against known serum types. In this way the patient s blood group is confirmed from both RBCs and serum. A direct Coombs test is also done on the patient s blood sample in case there are any confounding antibodies. Viral Hemagglutination Assay Main Hemagglutination assay Many viruses attach to molecules present on the surface of RBCs. A consequence of this is that at certain concentrations, a viral suspension may bind together agglutinate the RBCs, thus preventing them from settling out of suspension. Since agglutination is rarely linked to infectivity, Fact date February 2009 attenuated viruses can therefore be used in assay s. By serially diluting a virus suspension into an assay tray a series of wells of uniform volume and adding a standard amount of blood cells, an estimation of the number of virus particles can be made. While less accurate than a plaque assay , it is cheaper and quicker taking just 30 minutes . This assay may be modified to include the addition of an antiserum. By using a standard amount of virus, a standard amount of blood cells, and serially diluting the antiserum , one can identify the concentration of the antiserum the great ... more details
For Wikipedia s Files for upload process, see Wikipedia Files for upload FFU may stand for Football Federation of Ukraine Final Fantasy Unlimited Fan Filter Unit Air cleaning equipment to supply purified air to cleanroom s for manufacturing semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, precision equipment, etc. The installation space is the system File Cleanroom1.jpg ceiling grid . For a large clean room, the number of required FFUs is from several hundred to several thousand. Fred Flintstone Units a pejorative term used to refer to Imperial unit s or United States customary units U.S. customary units by supporters of metrication . Focus forming units, a term used to describe viral infectivity Femur fibula ulna syndrome. F rench F ixe U shant station. In French, since 1901, after having moved in several places on the island of Ushant , the station Ouessant Wireless telegraphy TSF , Ushant Wireless telegraphy TSF , Code radio FFU F rench F ixe U shant station created by Camille Papin Tissot Camille Tissot , was as of 1904 the first operational French station in connection with one float of 80 Passenger ship Passengers ships on 500 kHz . Destroyed in 1944 per act of war, Ouessant Wireless telegraphy TSF was never rebuilt. It was replaced in 1952 by the new station Le Conquet Radio on 500 kHz on 2182 kHz , with same radio call sign FFU to date closed. Station of radiogoniometry of Ushant Gonio FFU, in 1922 on wavelength 450 meters determined the position of ships, of airships which required it of him. F or F uture U se. Pin description, e.g. for integrated circuits. disambig de FFU fr FFU it FFU ja FFU ... more details
Taxobox virus group iv familia Tombusviridae genus Dianthovirus The viruses of the genus Dianthovirus belong to the family Tombusviridae . Dianthoviruses are plant viruses . Examples of species of this genus include the type species, Carnation ringspot virus , Red clover necrotic mosaic virus and Sweet clover necrotic mosaic virus . The virus probably has a worldwide distribution 1 . The viruses can be and have been transmitted via nematodes , by mechanical inoculation, by grafting of plants and by contact between infected hosts with previously uninfected Host biology host 1 . Particles Viruses of this genus have round, non enveloped capsids with icosahedral symmetry and a hexagonal appearance 1 . The capsid is 31 35 nm in diameter. The buoyant density in CsCl of virions is between 1.363 1.366 g cm 3 1 . They have a sedimentation coefficient of 126 132 135 S20w 1 . The pH of their isoelectric point is 4.5 1 . The virions become inactive from about 80 90 C and are inactive above those temperatures. They are viable in vitro for about 50 70 days 1 . Treatment with ether either decreases or does not alter their infectivity 1 . No lipids have so far been reported 1 . Genome These viruses have segmented, bipartite genomes that are linear, positive sense, single stranded RNA 1 . These genomes are about 5300 nucleotides in length 1 . They have a methylated cap at the 5 end whose sequence type is m7GpppA 1 . The genome also codes for non structural proteins as well as structural proteins 1 . Three non structural proteins have been found 1 . References ICTVdB The Universal Virus Database, version 4. http www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ICTVdb ICTVdB External links http www.expasy.org viralzone all by species 633.html Viralzone Dianthovirus Category Virology Category Microbiology ... more details
Rfam box acc RF00229 description Picornavirus internal ribosome entry site IRES abbreviation IRES Picorna avg length 171.80 avg identity 79.00 type Cis reg IRES se http ifr31w3.toulouse.inserm.fr IRESdatabase ss Predicted PFOLD release 10.0 This family represents the Picornavirus internal ribosome entry site IRES . IRES elements allow cap and end independent translation biology translation of mRNA in the host cell. It has been found that La autoantigen La is required for Coxsackievirus B3 CVB3 IRES mediated translation, and it has been suggested that La may be required for the efficient translation of the viral RNA in the pancreas . ref cite journal last Ray first PS coauthors Das S year 2002 title La autoantigen is required for the internal ribosome entry site mediated translation of Coxsackievirus B3 RNA journal Nucleic Acids Res volume 30 pages 4500&ndash 4508 pmid 12384597 doi 10.1093 nar gkf583 issue 20 pmc 137146 ref ref cite journal last Liu first Z coauthors Carthy CM, Cheung P, Bohunek L, Wilson JE, McManus BM, Yang D year 1999 title Structural and functional analysis of the 5 untranslated region of coxsackievirus B3 RNA In vivo translational and infectivity studies of full length mutants journal Virology volume 265 pages 206&ndash 217 pmid 10600593 doi 10.1006 viro.1999.0048 issue 2 ref References reflist 1 External links Rfam id RF00229 name Picornavirus internal ribosome entry site IRES molecular cell biology stub Category Cis regulatory RNA elements Category Internal ribosome entry site ... more details
The Haemagglutination Assay HA is a method of quantification for virus es or bacteria by hemagglutination . It is an easy, simple and rapid method which can be applied to large numbers of samples. Some viral families and many bacteria have envelope or surface protein s which are able to agglutinate stick to human or animal Red blood cell s RBC and bind to N acetylneuraminic acid . As each of the agglutinating molecule attaches to multiple RBCs, a Bravais lattice lattice structure will form. The haemagglutination assay of a virus, in contrast to other forms of virus quantification such as a plaque assay or 50 Tissue Culture Infective Dose , does not give any measure of viral infectivity, because no virus replication is required in this assay. The same may not be true when using HA for bacteria. The detailed conditions depend on the type of virus or bacteria being assayed since certain pH values and ionic strengths can impact the activity of the proteins of interest in a difficult to predict manner. Normally, a virus dilution e.g. 2 fold from 1 4 to 1 4096 will be applied to an RBC dilution e.g. 0.1 to 0.7 in steps of 0.2 for approx. 30 min, often at 4 Celsius C , otherwise viruses with neuraminidase activity will detach the virus from the RBCs. Then the lattice forming parts will be counted and the titre calculated. Virus concentration in virion s per Litre milliliter 10 sup 7 sup x HA titer . ref cite journal author Donald HB, Isaacs A title Counts of influenza virus particles journal J. Gen. Microbiol. volume 10 issue 3 pages 457 64 year 1954 pmid 13174769 doi ref For bacteria, depending on species, a bacterial dilution will be applied to an equal part RBC dilution and then incubated for 30 min to an hour at an Bacterial growth optimal growth temperature before being observed. ref cite journal author X. Chen , et al. title The S Layer Proteins of L. crispatus strain ZJ001 is responsible for competitive exclusion against E. coli O157 h7 and S. typhimurim journal Int ... more details
protein Skip past these infobox fields to edit article body Name peptidylprolyl isomerase A cyclophilin A caption Ribbon diagram of cyclophilin A in complex with ciclosporin yellow . From PDB 1CWA . image Cyclophilin A cyclosporin complex 1CWA.png width 200 HGNCid 9253 Symbol PPIA AltSymbols EntrezGene 5478 OMIM 123840 RefSeq NM 203430 UniProt Q3KQW3 PDB ECnumber 5.2.1.8 Chromosome 7 Arm p Band 13 LocusSupplementaryData protein Name peptidylprolyl isomerase D cyclophilin D caption image width HGNCid 9257 Symbol PPID AltSymbols EntrezGene 5481 OMIM 601753 RefSeq NM 005038 UniProt Q08752 PDB ECnumber Chromosome 4 Arm q Band 31.3 LocusSupplementaryData Cyclophilins , abbreviated Cyp not to be confused with CYP , which is the approved abbreviation for cytochrome P450 , are protein s that bind to ciclosporin , an immunosuppressant which is usually used to suppress Transplant rejection rejection after internal organ transplant s. These proteins have peptidyl prolyl isomerase activity, which catalysis catalyzes the isomerization of peptide bonds from trans form to cis form at proline residues and facilitates protein folding . Cyclophilin A Human peptidylprolyl isomerase A , which exists in cytosol , has a beta barrel structure with two alpha helix alpha helices and a beta sheet . Other cyclophilins have similar structures to cyclophilin A. The ciclosporin cyclophilin A complex inhibits a calcium calmodulin dependent phosphatase , calcineurin , the inhibition of which is thought to suppress organ rejection by halting the production of the pro inflammatory molecules TNF alpha and interleukin 2 . Cyclophilin A is also known to be recruited by the Gag polyprotein during HIV 1 virus infection, and its incorporation into new virus particles is essential for HIV 1 infectivity. Cyclophilin D Cyclophilin D, which is located in the mitochondrial matrix matrix of mitochondria , is a component of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore . The pore opening raises the permeability ... more details
italic title Taxobox color lightgrey name Mycobacterium africanum regnum Bacterium Bacteria phylum Actinobacteria ordo Actinomycetales subordo Corynebacterineae familia Mycobacterium Mycobacteriaceae genus Mycobacterium species M. africanum binomial Mycobacterium africanum binomial authority Castets et al. 1969, ref Castets, M., N. Rist, H. Boisvert. 1969. La vari t africaine du bacille tuberculeux humain. M decine d Afrique Noire, 1969, 16, 321 322. ref ATCC 25420 Mycobacterium africanum is a species of Mycobacterium that is most commonly found in West African countries. The symptoms of infection resemble those of M. tuberculosis . It is a member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex . ref name pmid20350321 cite journal author Vasconcellos SE, Huard RC, Niemann S, et al. title Distinct genotypic profiles of the two major clades of Mycobacterium africanum journal BMC Infect. Dis. volume 10 issue pages 80 year 2010 pmid 20350321 pmc 2859774 doi 10.1186 1471 2334 10 80 url http www.biomedcentral.com 1471 2334 10 80 ref Epidemiology M. africanum is most commonly found in West African countries, causing up to a quarter of cases of tuberculosis in countries such as the Gambia. It is an infection of humans only and is spread by an airborne route from individuals with open cases of disease. It has a similar degree of infectivity to the regular M. tuberculosis organism but is less likely to progress to clinical disease in an immunocompetent individual. M. africanum is more likely to progress from infection to causing disease in an HIV positive patient, hence in countries where M. africanum is endemic, it represents an important opportunistic infection of the later stages of HIV disease. Pathogenesis It is not fully understood how the genetic differences between M. africanum and M. tuberculosis give rise to the lower pathogenicity of the former. However, it is known that the Region of Difference 9 RD9 is lacking in M. africanum but present in M. tuberculosis Brosch, et ... more details
In the diagnostic laboratory virus infections are confirmed by several methods that include Growth of the virus in a cell culture from a specimen taken from the patient. Detection of virus specific antibodies in the blood. Detection of virus antigens Detection of virus nucleic acids Observation of virus particles by electron microscopy . Hemagglutination assay Cell culture main Viral culture When growing virus in a cell culture , the cells affected with virus will evolve morphologic changes, often specific for the type of virus involved. Antibody detection When the adaptive immune system of a vertebrate encounters a virus, it produces specific antibodies which bind to the virus and render it non infectious. This is called humoral immunity . Two types of antibodies are important. The first called IgM is highly effective at neutralizing viruses but is only produced by the cells of the immune system for a few weeks. The second, called, IgG is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past. ref Greer S, Alexander GJ. Viral serology and detection. Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1995 Dec 9 4 689 721 ref Both types of antibodies are measured when tests for Immunity medical immunity are carried out. ref Laurence JC. Hepatitis A and B immunizations of individuals infected with humanimmunodeficiency virus.Am J Med. 2005 Oct 118 Suppl 10A 75S 83S. ref Antigen detection Detection of virus antigens can be done by ELISA in tissues and fluids. Other techniques are immunofluorescence immunoperoxidase Hemagglutination assay Main Hemagglutination assay Many viruses attach to molecules present on the surface of red blood cells. A consequence of this is that at certain concentrations a viral suspension may bind together agglutinate the red blood cells thus preventing them from settling out of suspension. Usefully, agglutination is rarely linked to infectivity, attenuated vi ... more details
Taxobox name Ascaridia regnum Animalia phylum Nematoda classis Secernentea ordo Ascaridida subordo Ascaridina superfamilia Heterakoidea familia Ascaridiidae genus Ascaridia genus authority F lix Dujardin Dujardin , 1845 diversity link Species diversity 15 species Ascaridia pron en sk r di is the name of a genus of parasitic nematodes . Members of the genus are primarily intestinal parasites of birds . ref Yamaguti S 1961 . Systema Helminthum. 3. The nematodes of vertebrates . Interscience Publishers, New York and London, pp. 1261 ref There are three well known species , namely, Ascaridia galli A. galli found mostly in chicken , A. dissimilis in turkey s, and A. columbae in pigeon s. Lesser known species such as A. hermaphrodita , A. sergiomeirai , A. ornata , A. nicobarensis and A. platyceri are found in parrots . ref Kajerova V, Barus V, Literak I 2004 . http old.vri.cz docs vetmed 49 6 217.pdf Nematodes from the genus Ascaridia parasitizing psittaciform birds a review and determination key . Vet. Med. Czech , 49 6 217 223. ref Among these Ascaridia galli A. galli is the most important and most pathogenic species , responsible for ascaridiasis of poultry. ref Griffiths HJ 1978 . A Handbook of Veterinary Parasitology Domestic Animals of North America . University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, pp. 46 47. ref Symptoms of heavy infection include diarrhea , stunted growth, listlessness and enteritis . The eggs of these nematodes are characterized by a thick exoskeleton shell , smooth and ellipsoid al, and composed of three distinct layers. They exhibit direct life cycle involving release of egg biology eggs into the soil and then ingesting them subsequently along the food. Eggs are resistant to desiccation , persist for a long time in the environment, and remain directly Infectivity infective . Therefore control of infection involves the prevention of contamination of feeders and drinkers with faeces pasture rotation and regular treatment, especial ... more details
concentrations, reducing viral infectivity . However, when tested in cell culture with micromolar concentrations, it was found that biliverdin and bilirubin reduced infectivity by blocking viral ... as HIV 1 protease inhibitors and their effects on HIV 1 viral maturation and infectivity in vitro journal ... more details
unreferenced date August 2007 expert subject Medicine date February 2010 Orphan date February 2009 The virino is a hypothesis hypothetical infection infectious particle theorized to be the cause of scrapie and other degenerative disease s of the central nervous system it is thought to consist of nucleic acid in a protective coat of host cell protein s. The major problem regarding scrapie and other transmissible encephalopathy spongiform encephalopathies TSEs is to determine the nature of the transmission agent. Origin of the Virino Concept The virino was described partially to protect the central dogma of molecular biology , which was threatened by the existence of a series of degenerative neurological TSE diseases including Kuru disease kuru , Creutzfeldt Jakob disease CJD , scrapie in sheep, and Bovine spongiform encephalopathy BSE in cows. The central dogma states that nucleic acid s act as the information carriers, and thus that DNA & RNA make proteins. Proteins alone cannot make DNA. However, studies searching for the transmission agent of scrapie and other TSEs have failed to culture bacteria , and tests attacking nucleic acids strands have little effect on the infectivity of TSE solutions. These failures largely rule out a virus as the infective agent. Experiments using electron beams designed to disrupt large molecule s have been performed to investigate the size of the agent show that it is very small much smaller than the smallest known virus . The virino also has the benefit of explaining the traits of TSEs which resemble nucleic acids for example, their occurrence in strains, which positively indicates that the TSE agent is information carrying, and not merely a toxin . History of Description In 1971 Dickinson, AG and Meikle, VM provided a hypothesis for the replication of the scrapie agent. This hypothesis was based on the discovery of a single autosomal gene controlling the scrapie incubation period in mouse mice and on observations about strains of th ... more details
Encyclopedia
top
