Zeta (Serbian Cyrillic: ????, Latin: Zenta) was a principality whose territory was mostly Serbian territories that approximately encompass present-day Republic of Montenegro. It was named after the Zeta River.

Zeta was first noted as a vassalaged part of Rascia, ruled by heirs to the Serbian throne from the Nemanji? dynasty. When the principal heir became Grand ?upan of Rascia or King of Serbs, the fief would be granted to second in line to the throne.

Zeta became an independent fiefdom in 1356, during the gradual disintegration of Serbian Empire that followed the death of Tsar Stefan Du?an Uro? IV Nemanji? (Du?an the Mighty) in 1355.

During the late 15th century, Zeta became better known as Montenegro, which means Black Mountain in the Venecian dialect of Italian. It was succeeded by theocratic Montenegro and Ottoman-ruled Montenegro.

History

Zeta in Rascian State

Grand ?upan Stefan I Nemanja of Rascia and Duklja/Zeta.

After Constantin Bodin's death, fighting among his potential successors weakened the state of Duklja and the region succumbed to Rascia's reign between 1183 and 1186.

In 1190, Grand ?upan of Rascia Stefan Nemanja's son, Vukan II, asserted his right to the Dukljan crown. In 1219, the regent of Zeta and King Vukan's oldest son, ?or?e Nemanji?, became king of Duklja/Zeta. He was succeeded by his second oldest son, Uro? I, who built the 'Uspenje Bogorodice' monastery in Mora?a.

Between 1276 and 1309, Zeta was ruled by Queen Jelena, widow of Serbia's King Uro? I. She restored around 50 monasteries in the region--- most notably Saint Sr? and Vakh on the Bojana River. The name Crna Gora (Montenegro) was formally mentioned for the first time in 1296, in the charter of St. Nicholas' monastery in Vranjina. This charter was issued by the Serbian King Stefan Milutin Nemanji?, who was the youngest son of Uro? I and Jelena Kurtene. Crna Gora (Montenegro) was to be understood as the highland region under Mount Lov?en, within the confines of Zeta. By the beginning of the 14th century, during King Milutin's reign, the Archdiocese in Bar was the strongest feudal lord in Zeta.

From 1309 to 1321, Zeta was co-ruled by the oldest son of King Milutin, Young King Stefan Uro? III De?anski. Similarly, from 1321 to 1331, Stefan's young son Stefan Du?an Uro? IV Nemanji?, the future Serbian King and Tzar, co-ruled Zeta with his father.

After Tzar Du?an's death in 1355, the Serbian state Kingdom started to crumble and its holdings were divided among Prince (Knjaz) Lazar Hrebeljanovi?, the short-lived (1353-1391) Bosnian state of Ban Tvrtko I Kotromani?, and a semi-independent chiefdom of Zeta under the House of Bal?i?, whose founder Bal?a I came to power in 1356.

The House of Bal?i?

Realm of Zeta of the House of Bal?i? in the 14th century

The earliest State of Balsic

House of Bal?i? Coat of Arms

Autonomy of Zeta

The most prosperous and mightiest era of Serbia's history was brought to an end by the death of the Du?an in 1355. Seizing the opportunity, the leading dynasty in Zeta, the Bal?i?s, reasserted Zeta's autonomy in 1356.

Mention of the House of Bal?i?

The very first written document relating to the House of Bal?i? is in the chart of Uro? issued to the Republic of Dubrovnik from 1360.

Bal?a I

The founder of the House of Bal?i?, Bal?a I, originally controlled one village but with the help of his sons Stracimir, ?ura? I and Bal?a II, he conquered Upper Zeta and the towns of Skadar, Kotor and Bar.

?ura? I and Bal?a II ruled Zeta from 1362 to 1378 and from 1378 to 1385, respectively. However, the most influential Bal?i? is considered to have been ?ura? I, who enlarged and consolidated Zeta's renewed power and conquered Prizren (previously Nemanji?'s royal capital, in Metohija).

?ura? I

?ura? I's rule of Zeta extended from 1362 to 1378. During this time, he forged an alliance with King Vuka?in Mrnjav?evi?, but Vuka?in Mrnjav?evi? was killed soon afterwards at the Battle of Marica in 1371. ?ura? I married Vuka?in's daughter, Olivera.

?ura? I ran Zeta as a modern ruler of the time. Zeta's institutions were functioning well, while the coastal towns enjoyed considerable autonomy. Commerce was well developed and enhanced by the existence of Zeta's currency, the dinar.

?ura? I allied with his neighbors Prince Lazar Hrebeljanovi? of Serbia, Ban Tvrtko I Kotromani? of Bosnia, Prince Nikola I Gorjanski and King Louis I of Hungary, to defeat the ambitious Herzegovina'a ruler Nikola Altomanovi? in 1373. In spite of this, the defeated and blinded Nikola Altomanovi? found a refuge in Zeta until his death.

While he was battling in the south of Kosovo, ?ura?'s younger brother Bal?a II, married Komnina, a close cousin of the mighty Tzar Du?an Uro? IV Nemanji?'s wife, Jelena. By marrying Komnina, ?ura? II received a generous dowry in land, including Avlona, Berat, Kanina, and some additional strategically important regions.

Upon the division of Herzegovina, the Bal?i?s took the towns of Trebinje, Konavle and Dra?evica. Subsequent dispute over these towns led to a conflict between Zeta and Bosnia, led by Ban Tvrtko I. The fight was eventually won by Bosnia, supported by Hungary, after ?ura?'s death in 1378.

Bal?a II

In 1378, following ?ura?'s death, his brother Bal?a II became the King of Zeta. In 1382, Ban Tvrtko I conquered Dra?evica, and built the town later known as Herceg-Novi. Both Tvrtko I and Bal?a II aspired to ascend to the throne of the House of Nemanji?.

During his rule, Bal?a II's could not maintain the control of the feudal lords as his predecessor did. His power was strong only in region around Skadar, and in the eastern part of Zeta. The most prominent feudal lords who did not recognize Bal?a's rule was the House of Crnojevi?, who were consistent encouraged by the Venetians to rebel against him.

Bal?a II needed four attempts to conquer Dra?, an important commercial and strategic center. Defeated, Karl Thopia appealed to the Turks for help. Turkish forces led by Hajrudin Pasha inflicted heavy damage to Bal?a II's forces and killed him at a major battle at Saurian Field near Berat, in 1385.

?ura? II

Picture of coat of arm in silver coin ?ura? II, about 1400 AD

With this in mind as well as the constant danger from the Turks, ?ura? II maintained strong family ties with the Serbia's main lord of the time, Prince Lazar. To help Prince Lazar defend the Serbian lands from Ottoman invasion, ?ura? II sent his troops along with Ban Tvrtko I Kotromani?'s forces (with whom he had a dispute over Kotor) to meet the Ottoman army at Kosovo Polje. Despite Sultan Murad I's death, the Serbian army suffered a defeat at the epic Battle of Kosovo in 1389. According to the sources, ?ura? II did not participate in the battle but was in Ulcinj in Southern Zeta.

In later years, ?ura? II played skillful diplomatic games to enhance the rivalry between the Ottomans and the Venetians. To that purpose, he offered Skadar to both hoping that eventually he would be able to keep it. After two years of fighting, Turks and Venetians agreed to leave it to ?ura? II, who was neutral in the conflict. Similarly, the rivalry between Venetians and Hungarians brought a benefit to him. After a serious defeat of his forces by Turks near Nikopolje, the Hungarian King Sigismund gave him the title of Prince of Arbania and the control over the islands of Hvar and Kor?ula.

In the feud between ?ura? Brankovi? and his uncle, Stefan Lazarevi? (son of Prince Lazar), who later received the title of Byzantine Despot, ?ura? II sided with Stefan. Due to ?ura?'s support, Stefan defeated Turkish forces led by ?ura? Brankovi? in the Battle of Gra?anica on Kosovo Field in June 21, 1402.

Bal?a III

In 1403, ?ura? II's 17-year old son, Bal?a III, inherited the throne of Zeta after his father died as a consequence of the injuries he suffered in the Battle of Gra?anica. As he was young and unexperienced, his main advisor was his mother Jelena, a sister of the Serbian ruler, Stefan Lazarevi?. Under her influence, Bal?a III declared Serbian Orthodox Christianity as the official state religion; however, Catholicism was tolerated.

Bal?a III continued the policies of his father. In 1418, took Skadar from the Venetians, but lost Budva. In the following year he made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture Budva. Afterwards he went to Belgrade to ask for help from Despot Stefan, but never returned to Zeta.

Zeta in the Despotate (1421-1451)

Stefan Lazarevi?

In 1421, before his death and under the influence of his mother Jelena, Bal?a III passed the rule of Zeta to Despot Stefan. He fought Venetians and regained Bar in mid-1423, and in the following year he sent his nephew ?ura? Brankovi?, who regaining Drivast and Ulcinium (Ulcinj).

?ura? Brankovi?

In 1427, Deaspot Stefan died and Serbian was inherited by his nephew, Despot ?ura? Brankovi? who, at the time, needed to confront the more serious threat of the Ottoman Empire, and so could not pay particular attention to Zeta.

House of Crnojevi?

House of Crnojevi? Coat of Arms

Ascent to Power

The House of Crnojevi? began with two brothers, ?ura? and Aleksa ?ura?evi?-Crnojevi?, from the area around Mount Lov?en. But far more important roles in establishing this family's rule in Zeta were played by Stefan I Crnojevi? (1451-1465) and his son Ivan Crnojevi? (1465-1490). Ivan's son ?ura? Crnojevi? (1490-1496) was the last ruler from this dynasty. Beginning with the House of Crnojevi? rule, Zeta began to be referred to commonly as Crna Gora (Montenegro).

Stefan I

Stefan I Crnojevi? consolidated his power in Zeta and ruled for 14 years, from 1451 until 1465. During his rule, he saw the Despotate completely subdued by Turkey soon after the death of Despot ?ura? Brankovi?. Under Stefan Crnojevi?, Montenegro comprised the Lov?en area around Cetinje, 51 municipalities which included Rijeka Crnojevi?a (Crnojevi? River), the valley of the River Zeta and the clans Bjelopavli?i, Pje?ivci, Malonsi?i, Piperi, Hoti, Klimenti (Kelmendi) and others. The population of the territories controlled by Stefan was about 30,000. Total population of Zeta (including regions under the Venetian, Kosa?a's and Turkish rule), was about 80,000 people.

Capitalising on the weak position of Despot ?ura?, the Venetians and Herzog Stjepan Vuk?i? Kosa?a of St. Sava (the region of Herzegovina is named after him) conquered parts of his territory. Stefan I Crnojevi?, who had already established himself as the head of House of Crnojevi? (around 1451) in Upper Zeta was forced to make territorial concessions. In addition, Kosa?a took Stefan's son, Ivan a hostage, hoping that this will force Stefan to side with him when needed.

Stefan married Mara, a daughter of a prominent Albanian Gjon Kastrioti, whose son was the Albanian national hero, Skanderbeg. In 1455, Stefan entered into an agreement with his ally Venice, stipulating that Zeta would recognize the nominal supremacy of Venice while maintaining its factual independence in virtually every respect. The agreement also stipulated that Zeta would assist Venice militarily on specific occasions in exchange for an annual provision. But in all other respects, Stefan's rule in Zeta was undisputed.

Ivan

Legendary Stag of the Crnojevi?s

The State of Crnojevi? in XV century

Knowing that the Ottomans would try to punish him for fighting on the Venetian side, and in order to preserve his independence, in 1482 he moved his capital from ?abljak on Lake Skadar to the mountainous area of Dolac, under Mount Lov?en. There he built the Orthodox Christian monastery (Cetinje Monastery) around which the capital, Cetinje, would emerge. This event marks the end of the history of Zeta, since the country permanently changed its name to Montenegro during ?ura? Crnojevi?'s rise to power.

?ura? IV

?ura? IV Crnojevi? became ruler of Zeta in 1490. His rule lasted until 1496. ?ura?, Ivan's oldest son, was an educated ruler. He is most famous for one historical act: he used the printing press brought to Cetinje by his father to print the first books in southeastern Europe, in 1493. The Crnojevi? printing press marked the beginning of the printed word among Serbs. The press operated from 1493 through 1496, turning out religious books, five of which have been preserved: Oktoih prvoglasnik, Oktoih petoglasnik, Psaltir, Molitvenik, and ?etvorojevan?elje. ?ura? managed the printing of the books, wrote prefaces and afterwords, and developed sophisticated tables of Psalms with the lunar calendar. The books from the Crnojevi? press were printed in two colors, red and black, and were richly ornamented. They served as models for many books printed in Cyrillic.

After the rule of Zeta was handed to ?ura?, his youngest brother, Stani?a, with no chance to succeed his father, Ivan, went to Constantinople and converted to Islam. As a loyal servant of the Sultan, Stani?a later became the Shkodrian Sanjak-Bey under the name of Skender. His brothers, ?ura? and Stefan II continued the struggle against Ottomans. The historical facts are unclear and disputed, but it seems that the Venetians, frustrated by their own inability to subdue the House of Crnojevi? to their own interests, managed to kill Stefan II and deceitfully sent ?ura? to Constantinople. Principally, ?ura? visited Venice to work on the wide anti-Ottoman campaign, but was kept in captivity for some time while Stefan II was defending Zeta against the Ottomans. It is likely that upon his return to Zeta, ?ura? was kidnapped by the Venetian agents and sent to Constantinople under the accusation that he had been organising a Holy War against Islam. There are some unreliable claims that ?ura? was given Anatolia to rule, but in any case the reports about ?ura?'s whereabouts ceased after 1503.

The End of the Principality

After the death of ?ura? Crnojevi?, Zeta was ruled by his brother Stefan II, as an Ottoman vassal. The end of the 15th century and of Stefan's rule marked the end of the House of Crnojevi?. In the new administrative division of the Balkans, Zeta was a part of the Sanjak of ??kodra (Skadar) from 1499 to 1514. During this period, while Brda and North-West of Montenegro were nominally independent, the part of Zeta under Mount Lov?en remained entirely independent. By the end of the 15th century, Upper Zeta comprised Katunska, Rije?ka, Crmni?ka, and Lje?anska Nahijas, and the name of Montenegro was widely in use.

In 1514, Zeta was proclaimed as the separate Sanjak of Montenegro, by the order of Sultan Beyazid II. Ivan Crnojevi?'s son Stani?a (Skenderbeg), who converted to Islam was chosen ad the first Sanjak-Bey and governed until 1528. Despite Skenderbeg's emphasized cruelty, Ottomans did not have real power in Zeta. The real power was in the hands of tribal heads. From 1534 onwards, there is no more mention of the Crnojevi?s in Zeta. They reappeared in Serbian history as ?arnojevi?s. Their most prominent member was Archbishop of Pe? and Patriarch of Serbs Arsenije III ?arnojevi? (1633-1706).

The Principality of Zeta officially ended when it was turned into a theocratic state by the Vladikas (Prince-Bishops or Prince-Episcopes) when they took over in 1516. Zeta became known as Montenegro. The Ottomans controlled a part of Zeta since 1498, that was known as the Sanjak of Montenegro, the Republic of Venice controlled Kotor and the theocracy controlled the rest of Montenegro (Upper Zeta).

In 1516, there was a shift in the constitution of Zeta. The last person of the House of Crnojevi? retired to Venice and married a Venetian. This conferred the succession upon the bishops of Cetinje. In Zeta, the position of vladika, as the prince-bishop was known, brought stability to that country's leadership. The link between church and state elevated it in the eyes of the peasantry, gave it an institutionalised form of succession that prevented its becoming a matter of contest between minor chieftains, and excluded the possibility of compromising alliances with the Ottomans.

List of rulers

House of Nemanji?

• Grand Zhupan Stefan Nemanja (1186-1196)
• Vukan II Nemanji? of Duklja/Zeta and Dalmatia (1196-1208)
• King ?or?e Nemanji? 1208-1243
• King Stefan Uro? I 1243-1276
• Queen Helene d'Anjou (Widow of King Stefan Uro? I) (1276-1309)
• King Stefan Milutin Nemanji? (1309-1321)
  • King Stefan Uro? III Nemanji? (St. Stefan De?anski) (1309-1321)
• King Stefan De?anski|Stefan Uro? III Nemanji? (St. Stefan De?anski) (1321-1331)
  • King Stefan Du?an Uro? IV Nemanji? (1321-1331)
• King and Tsar Stefan Du?an Uro? IV Nemanji? (1331-1355)

House of Bal?i?

• Bal?a I (1356-1362)
• ?ura? I (1362-1378)
• Bal?a II (1378-1385)
• ?ura? II (1385-1403)
• Bal?a III (1403-1421)

Despots

• Despot Stefan Lazarevi? (1421-1427)
• Despot ?ura? Brankovi? (1427-1435)

House of Crnojevi?

• Stefan I Crnojevi? (1451-1465)
• Ivan Crnojevi? (1465-1490)
• ?ura? Crnojevi? (1490-1496)
• Stefan II Crnojevi? (1496-1498)

References

• J. Jovanovi?, Stvaranje Crnogorske Dr?ave i Razvoj Crnogorske Nacionalnosti, 1947, Cetinje pages 18, 28, 36, 43, and 54-55
• D. ?ivkovi?, Istorija Crnogorskog Naroda, 1989, Cetinje

See also

• History of Serbia
• History of Montenegro
• Duklja

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