USS Constitution, known as "Old Ironsides," is a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy. Named after the United States Constitution, she is the oldest commissioned ship afloat in the world. Constitution was one of the six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794 and was launched in 1797. Joshua Humphreys designed them to be the Navy's capital ships and so Constitution and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed than the standard frigates of the period.

The modern day role of "Old Ironsides" is that of "ship of state". The crew of 55 sailors participates in ceremonies, educational programs and special events (including sail drill) while keeping the ship open to visitors year-round and providing free tours. The crew are all active-duty sailors in the Navy and the assignment is considered a special duty. Traditionally, the duty of captain of the vessel is assigned to an active duty Navy commander.

Construction

In the period from August 1785 when , the last fighting ship of the Continental Navy was sold until 1797, the United States only armed maritime service was the Revenue Marine founded in 1790 at the prompting of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. During the 1790s American merchant shipping began to be harassed by France and pirates from the Barbary Coast area, most notably Algiers, and America began thinking about constructing a force to defend her merchant marine.^[2][3][4]

In late 1792 Secretary of War Henry Knox requested from different shipbuilders to submit ideas and plans to build six vessels. The plans of Joshua Humphreys^[5], a naval architect and draftsman Josiah Fox were accepted in 1793. Humphreys' design was unique for the time because of diagonal cross-bracing of the ship's skeleton which contributed considerably to the ship's structural strength by preventing hogging. He had also specified the use of the most durable materials available.^[6]

The Naval Act of 1794, passed by the United States Congress provided for the construction of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each. The third forty-four gun frigate of the six was named Constitution by President George Washington.^[7][8]

The keel of Constitution was laid down on 1 November 1794 at Edmund Hartt's shipyard in Boston, Massachusetts under the supervision of Captain Samuel Nicholson, who had commanded the frigate during the Revolutionary War^[9] and Naval Constructor George Claghorn.^[10] Primary materials used in her building were white pine; yellow pine; white oak and most importantly southern live oak that was cut and milled at Gascoigne Bluff in St. Simons, Georgia. Southern live oak can weigh up to 75 pounds per cubic foot and her hull would be thick in an era when was normally used. Paul Revere forged the copper sheathing that was installed to protect the hull along with copper bolts and breasthooks.^[1][6][11]

In March 1796, as construction of Constitution slowly progressed, a peace accord was announced between the United States and the Dey of Algiers and in accordance with section nine of the Naval Act of 1794, her construction was halted. After some debate and prompting by President Washington, Congress agreed to continue to fund the construction of only the three frigates nearest to completion: ,^{[12] [13]} and Constitution.^[14]

Constitutions launching ceremony on 20 September 1797 was attended by then President John Adams and the Governor of Massachusetts Increase Sumner. Upon launch, she only slid down the ways before stopping. Her weight had caused the ways to settle into the ground preventing further movement. An attempt two days later only resulted in an additional of travel before stopping on the ways. After a month of rebuilding the ways, she finally slipped into Boston Harbor on 21 October 1797 with Captain James Sever breaking a bottle of Madeira wine on her bowsprit. Sever would command upon her launch two years later.^[15][16][17] Her fitting-out was delayed through the winter and early spring of 1798 due to weather and a Congressional investigation into the reasons surrounding the construction of the six frigates, which had overrun their budgets and original estimated completion time. By now, France had seized over 300 American merchant vessels and the latest diplomatic mission had resulted in the XYZ Affair prompting Congress to approve funds for completion of the remaining three frigates ,^[18]Congress^[17] and .^[19] Captain Nicholson was authorized to recruit sailors and midshipman to serve in Constitution but found great difficulty in doing so. The Naval Agent at Boston had offered the explanation for low interest from recruits as describing Nicholson to be "a rough, blustering tar merely, a man whose noise and vanity is disgusting to the sailors".^[6] President Adams had ordered all US Navy ships to sea in late May to patrol for armed ships of France and to free any American ship captured by France. Constitution was still not ready to sail; eventually having to borrow sixteen 18-pound cannons from Castle Island before finally being readied.^[20]

Quasi-War

Once armed, Constitution put to sea on the evening of 22 July 1798 with orders to patrol the Eastern Seaboard between New Hampshire and New York. A month later she was patrolling the Chesapeake Bay to Savannah, Georgia area when Nicholson found his first opportunity for capturing a prize off the coast of Charleston on September 8 when he intercepted the Niger, a 24-gun ship sailing with a French crew from Jamaica to Philadelphia claiming to have been under the orders of Great Britain.^[20]

Perhaps not understanding his orders correctly, Nicholson had the crewmen imprisoned and placed a prize crew aboard the Niger and brought her into Norfolk. Constitution sailed south again a week later to escort a merchant convoy but her bowsprit was damaged severely in a gale requiring her return to Boston for repairs. In the meantime, Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert had determined the Niger was operating under Great Britain as claimed and the ship and her crew were released to continue their voyage with the American government paying a restitution of $11,000 to Great Britain.^[21]

Departing Boston on 29 December Nicholson was to report to Commodore John Barry near the island of Dominica for patrols in the West Indies. On 15 January 1799 Constitution intercepted the English merchantman Spencer that had been taken prize by the French frigate L'Insurgente^[22] a few days prior. Technically, Spencer was a French ship operated by a French prize crew but Nicholson, perhaps hesitant after the affair with the Niger released the ship and its crew the next morning.^[20][21]

Joining Barry's command from the , Constitution almost immediately had to put in for repairs to her rigging as they were damaged in a storm and it was not until 1 March that anything of note occurred when she encountered the of whom Nicholson^[23] was acquainted with her Captain. The two agreed to a sailing duel in which the English Captain was confident he would win but after 11 hours of sailing the next day the Santa Margaretta finally lowered her sails and admitted defeat paying her reward of a cask of wine to Nicholson. Resuming her patrols, Constitution managed to recapture the American sloop Neutrality 27 March and a few days later the French ship Carteret however Secretary Stoddert had other plans and recalled Constitution back to Boston. She arrived there 14 May and Nicholson was relieved of command.^{[15][20][21][24]}

Change of command

Captain Silas Talbot who had served in the Continental Navy was recalled to duty for the command of Constitution as the Commodore of operations in the West Indies. After repairs and resupply were completed Constitution departed Boston 23 July with a destination of Saint-Domingue via Norfolk to interrupt French shipping. She took the prize Amelia from a French prize crew on 15 September and Talbot sent it back to New York City with an American prize crew. She arrived at Saint-Domingue 15 October and rendezvoused with the ,^[25] ,^[26] and .^[27] Nothing much of note would occur over the next six months as French hostilities in the area had declined. Constitution busied herself with routine patrols and the occasional sailing contests with Boston and other ships of the squadron.^[20][21]

It wasn't until April 1800 that Talbot investigated increasing ship traffic near Puerto Plata, Santo Domingo and discovered the French privateer Sandwich had taken refuge there. On 8 May the squadron captured the sloop Sally and Talbot hatched his plan to capture the Sandwich utilizing the familiarity of Sally to allow the Americans access to the harbor. First Lieutenant Isaac Hull on 11 May led 90 sailors and Marines into Puerto Plata without a challenge capturing the Sandwich and spiking the guns of the nearby Spanish fort. However, it would later be determined that Sandwich had been captured from a neutral port and returned to the French with apologies and no prize money was awarded to the squadron.^{[15][21][24][28]}

Routine patrols would again occupy Constitution for the next two months until 13 July when the mainmast trouble of a few months prior returned requiring that she put into Cap Francois for repairs. With the term of enlistments soon to expire for the sailors aboard her, she made preparations for return to the United States being relived from duty by the ^[13] on 23 July. Constitution set out on her return voyage escorting twelve merchantmen to Philadelphia and herself putting into Boston on 24 August where she received new masts, sails and rigging.^[21]

Even with peace imminent for the United States and France Constitution again sailed for the West Indies on 17 December as squadron flagship rendezvousing with ,^[17],^[29],^[30],^[31] and .^[32] Although no longer allowed to pursue French shipping the squadron was assigned to protect American shipping and continued in that capacity until April 1801 when ^[33] arrived with orders for the squadron to return to the United States. Constitution returned to Boston where she lingered; finally being scheduled for an overhaul in October which was later canceled. She was placed in ordinary on 16 June 1802.^[24][21]

First Barbary War

In response to Yussif Karamanli, the Pasha of Tripoli's 1801 demand for $225,000 in tribute from the United States, Thomas Jefferson sent a group of frigates to defend American interests in the Mediterranean. The first squadron had been under the command of Richard Dale in the ^[18] and the second under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in the .^[19] Both squadrons had been unsuccessful in blockading shipping of the Barbary States leading to the dismissal of Morris in 1803.^[6][21][20]

Captain Edward Preble, arrived at the Boston Navy Yard on 13 May 1803 to recommission Constitution as his flagship and make preparations for a new squadron and the third blockade attempt. Constitution required the copper sheathing on her hull replaced and it was the first of many times that Paul Revere^[34] would supply the copper sheets necessary for the job.^[35][36] Constitution departed Boston on 14 August and on 6 September near the Rock of Gibraltar encountered an unknown ship in the darkness. Constitution went to quarters then ran alongside of her. Preble hailed the unknown ship only to receive a hail in return. After identifying as the United States frigate Constitution he received the same question again. Preble, losing his patience said: "I am now going to hail you for the last time. If a proper answer is not returned, I will fire a shot into you." "If you give me a shot, I'll give you a broadside," the stranger returned. Asking once more, Preble demanded an answer. "This is His Britannic Majesty's ship Donegal, 84 guns, Sir Richard Strachan, an English commodore. Send your boat on board." came the reply. Preble, now devoid of all patience exclaimed "This is United States ship Constitution, 44 guns, Edward Preble, an American commodore, who will be damned before he sends his boat on board of any vessel." And then to his gun crews: "Blow your matches, boys!"^[37] Before things could be carried any further, however, a boat arrived from the ship and a British lieutenant relayed his Captain's apologies. The ship was the , a 32-gun frigate that Constitution had got alongside of so quietly they had delayed answering with the proper hail while readying their guns. This was an act that began the strong allegiance between Preble and the officers under his command, known as "Preble's boys" as he had shown he was willing to defy a ship of the line.^{[6][20][21][24]}

Arriving at Gibraltar 12 September, Preble awaited the other ships of the squadron to arrive. His first order of business was to arrange a treaty with the Emperor of Morocco who was holding American ships hostage to ensure the return of two vessels the Americans had captured. Departing Gibraltar 3 October, Constitution and ^[38] arrived at Tangiers on the 4th and by the next day ^[29] and ^[39] had arrived. With four American warships in his harbor, the Emperor was more than glad to arrange the transfer of ships between the two nations and Preble departed with his squadron 14 October headed back to Gibraltar.^[6][21][24]

Battle of Tripoli Harbor

Burning of the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli, February 16, 1804.

Withdrawing the squadron to Syracuse, Sicily, Preble began planning for a summer attack on Tripoli procuring a number of smaller gunboats that could move in closer to Tripoli than Constitution was able with her deep draft. Arriving the morning of 3 August, Constitution, ,^[42],^[43],^[44] ,^[45] the six gunboats and two bomb ketches began operations. Twenty-two Tripoline gunboats met them in the harbor and in a series of attacks in the coming month, Constitution and her squadron severely damaged the Molehead Battery and destroyed several gunboats taking their crews prisoner. The Bashaw still remained firm in his demand for ransom and tribute. On the evening of 3 September, Richard Somers assumed command of Intrepid which had been fitted out as a "floating volcano" with 100 tons of gunpowder, was to sail into Tripoli harbor and blown up in the midst of the corsair fleet close under the walls of the city. That night, she got underway into the harbor, but she exploded prematurely, killing Somers and his entire crew of thirteen volunteers.^{[6][15][24][21]}

^[13] and ^[18] arrived on 9 September with Samuel Barron in command and Preble was forced to relinquish his command of the squadron to Barron, who was senior in rank. Constitution was ordered to Malta on the 11th for repairs and enroute captured two Greek vessels attempting to deliver wheat into Tripoli. The 12th would result in a collision with President that severely damaged Constitution's bow area including her figurehead of Hercules. The collision was attributed to an "Act of God" from a sudden change of wind direction.^[21]

Battle of Derne

Captain John Rodgers assumed command of Constitution on 9 November while she underwent repairs and resupply in Malta and resumed the blockade of Tripoli on 5 April 1805 capturing a Tripoline xebec and the two prizes she had captured. Meanwhile, Commodore Barron gave William Eaton naval support to bombard Derne while a detachment of U.S. Marines under the command of Lieutenant Presley O?Bannon were assembled to attack the city by land capturing it on 27 April. A peace treaty with Tripoli was signed aboard Constitution on 3 June where she embarked the crew of the Philadelphia and returned them to Syracuse. Then dispatched to Tunis, Constitution arrived there 30 July and by 1 August had gathered seventeen additional American warships, , Constellation, Enterprise, , , , , Nautilus, Syren, and eight gunboats in the harbor of Tunis. Negotiations with they Bey went on for several days until a short term blockade of the harbor finally produced a peace treaty on 14 August.^[6][20][21]

Rodgers remained in command of the squadron tasked with sending warships back to the United States as they were no longer needed. Eventually all that remained were Constitution, Enterprise and Hornet for routine patrols and observance of the French and Royal Navy operations of the Napoleonic Wars. Rodgers turned command of the squadron and Constitution over to Captain Hugh G. Campbell on 29 May 1806 and after more routine patrols she put into Lisbon for refitting in September which lasted three months. Captain James Barron and , were ordered to sail on 15 May 1807 to replace Constitution as the flagship of the Mediterranean squadron but soon out of Norfolk encountered resulting in the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair thereby delaying the relief of Constitution. ^[20][21]

Unaware of the delay of Chesapeake, Constitution continued patrols arriving in late June at Leghorn where she took aboard the disassembled Tripoli Monument for transport back to the United States. Arriving at Málaga she learned the fate of Chesapeake and Campbell immediately began preparing her and Hornet for possible war against England. The crew, upon learning of the delay in their relief became mutinous and refused to sail any farther unless the destination was the United States. Campbell and his officers threatened to fire a cannon full of grapeshot at the crew if they did not comply thereby putting an end to the conflict. Ordered home on 18 August, Campbell and the squadron set sail for Boston on 8 September arriving there 14 October. Constitution had been gone over four years.^[21]

War of 1812

Only in ordinary for two months, Constitution was reactivated with Captain John Rodgers again taking command to oversee a major refitting. At a cost just under $100,000 she was overhauled, however, inexplicably Rodgers ignored her copper bottom plating later leading him to declare her a "slow sailer" and she spent most of the two year period on training runs and ordinary duty. When Isaac Hull took command in June 1810 he immediately realized the necessity to have her hull bottom cleaned, removing a noted "ten waggon loads" of barnacles and seaweed. Hull then prepared for a voyage to France carrying the new Minister Joel Barlow and his family departing on 5 August 1811 and arriving 1 September. Remaining near France and Holland through the winter months, Hull continually held sail and gun drills to keep the crew ready for possible hostilities with the British. After the events of the Little Belt Affair the previous May, tensions were high between the United States and Britain resulting in Constitution being shadowed by British frigates while awaiting dispatches from Barlow to carry back to the United States where she arrived on 18 February 1812.^[6][21]

Constitution outruns a British Squadron, July 1812.

Constitution vs Guerriere

Locked in combat, Constitution brings down Guerriere?s mizzenmast

Constitution vs Java

On 8 September William Bainbridge, senior to Hull, took command of "Old Ironsides" and prepared her for another mission towards British shipping lanes near Brazil. Sailing with on 27 October they arrived near Sao Salvador 13 December sighting in the harbor. Bonne Citoyenne reportedly was carrying $1,600,000 in specie to England but her Captain refused to leave the neutral harbor lest he risk losing his cargo. Leaving Hornet to await the departure of Bonne Citoyenne, Constitution sailed offshore in search of prizes. On 29 December she met with , a frigate of the same class as the "Guerriere", and at the initial hail from Bainbridge, Java answered with a broadside that severely damaged Constitution's rigging but she was able to recover and return a series of broadsides to Java. A shot from Java destroyed her helm, killing four helmsmen. Bainbridge, wounded twice during the battle, directed the crew to steer her manually from the tiller for the duration of the battle. Similar to the battle with Guerriere, Java's bowsprit became entangled in Constitution's rigging allowing Bainbridge to continue raking her with broadsides until her foremast collapsed sending the fighting top crashing down two decks below.^[6][21]

Drawing off to make emergency repairs, Bainbridge approached Java an hour later where her first officer struck his colors and surrendered. Determining that Java was far too damaged to retain as a prize, Bainbridge ordered her burned but not before having her helm salvaged and installed on Constitution. Returning to Sao Salvador on 1 January 1813 she met with Hornet and that ships two British prizes to disembark the prisoners of Java. Being far away from a friendly port and needing extensive repairs, Bainbridge ordered Constitution to sail for Boston on 5 January leaving Hornet behind to continue waiting for Bonne Citoyenne in the hopes that she would leave the harbor, which she never did. Constitution?s action against HMS Java would appear in detail when Patrick O'Brian wrote his fictional novel The Fortune of War.^[49][50] Her victory over the Java, the third British ship in as many months to be captured by the United States, would prompt the British Admiralty to order their frigates not to engage American frigates. Only British ships-of-the-line or squadrons were permitted to come close enough to these ships to attack.^[51] Constitution arrived in Boston on 15 February to even greater celebrations than Hull had received a few months prior.^[6][21][11]

Marblehead and Blockade

Bainbridge determined that Constitution required new spar deck planking and beams along with entirely new masts, sails, rigging and replacement of her copper bottom. Personnel and supplies were now being diverted to the Great Lakes causing shortages that would keep her in Boston with her sister ships , and for the majority of the year. Charles Stewart took command on 18 July and struggled to complete the construction and recruiting of a new crew. Finally making sail on 31 December she set course for the West Indies to harass British shipping and by late March 1814 had captured five merchant ships and the . She had also pursued and though both of the ships escaped once realizing she was an American frigate.^[21]

Off the coast of Bermuda on 27 March it was discovered that her mainmast had split requiring immediate repair and Stewart set a course for Boston where on 3 April two British ships and picked up in pursuit of Constitution. Stewart began ordering drinking water and food to be cast overboard to lighten her load to gain speed, trusting that her mainmast would hold together long enough to make way into Marblehead Harbor.^[52] The last item thrown overboard was the supply of spirits. Upon arriving in the harbor, the citizens of Marblehead rallied in support assembling what cannons they possessed at Fort Sewall^[53] and the British called off the pursuit. Two weeks later, Constitution made her way into Boston where she would remain blockaded in port until mid-December.^[6][21]

HMS Cyane and HMS Levant

Stewart saw his chance to escape out of Boston Harbor on the afternoon of 18 December and again set course for Bermuda where on 24 December intercepted the merchantman Lord Nelson. Placing a prize crew aboard, Lord Nelson's stores readily supplied a Christmas dinner for the crew of Constitution as she had left Boston not fully supplied. Off Cape Finisterre on 8 February 1815, Stewart learned the Treaty of Ghent had been signed but realized that before it was ratified, a state of war would still exist. On 16 February Constitution captured the British merchantman Susanna with her cargo of animal hides valued at $75,000. Sighting two British ships on 20 February she gave chase to HMS Cyane, and , sailing in company.^[6][21]

Cyane and Levant began a series of broadsides against Constitution but Stewart soon out maneuvered both of them and was able to force Levant to draw off for repairs and concentrated his fire on Cyane where she soon struck her colors. Levant returned to engage Constitution but once she saw that Cyane had been defeated she turned and attempted escape. Constitution soon overtook her and after several more broadsides she too struck her colors. Stewart remained with his new prizes overnight while ordering repairs to all ships. Constitution had suffered little damage in the battle though it was later discovered she had twelve 32-pound British cannonballs embedded in her hull; none of which had penetrated through. Setting a course for the Cape Verde Islands the trio arrived at Porto Praya on 10 March.^[6][21]

The next morning three British ships were spotted on a course for the harbor and Stewart ordered all ships to sail immediately. , and had learned of Constitution's escape from Boston Harbor the previous December and had mounted a search for her; only catching up now. Cyane was able to elude the squadron and make sail for America where she arrived on 10 April but Levant was overtaken and recaptured. While the enemy squadron was distracted with Levant, Constitution made another escape from overwhelming forces.^[6][20][21]

Aftermath

Constitution set a course towards Guinea and then west towards Brazil as Stewart had learned from the capture of Susanna that was transporting gold bullion back to England and wanted her as a prize. Constitution put into Maranhão on 2 April to offload her British prisoners and replenish her drinking water. While there Stewart learned by rumor that the Treaty of Ghent had been ratified and set course for America receiving verification of peace at San Juan, Puerto Rico on 28 April, he set course for New York and arrived home 15 May to large celebrations. While Constitution had emerged from the war undefeated, her sister ships ^[19] and ^[18] were not so fortunate as both ships had been captured in 1813 and 1815 respectively. By 1820 they had been sold and broken up for their timbers. Chesapeakes timbers still survive today as part of the Chesapeake Mill.^[54] Constitution was moved to Boston and placed in ordinary in January 1816, sitting out the action of the Second Barbary War.^[6][20][21] In April 1820 Isaac Hull, commandant of the Charlestown Navy Yard, directed a refitting of Constitution to prepare her for duty with the Mediterranean Squadron. Joshua Humphreys' diagonal riders were removed to make room for two iron freshwater tanks and timbers below the waterline along with the copper sheathing were replaced. She was also subjected to an unusual experiment where, at the direction of Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson, manually operated paddle wheels were fitted to her hull. If stranded by calm seas, the paddle wheels were designed to propel her up to by the crew using the ships capstan. Initial testing was successful but reportedly, Hull and the new commanding officer of Constitution Jacob Jones were unimpressed with paddle wheels on a US Navy ship and Jones had them removed and stowed in the cargo hold before he departed 13 May 1821 for a three year tour of duty in the Mediterranean.^[20][21] Constitution experienced a very uneventful tour of duty in the Mediterranean sailing in company with and until the behavior of the crews during shore leave would soon give Jones a reputation as a Commodore who was lax in discipline. Weary of receiving complaints of the crew's antics while in port, the Navy ordered Jones to return and Constitution arrived in Boston 31 May 1824 where Jones was relieved of command. Thomas MacDonough took command and sailed again on 29 October for the Mediterranean under the direction of John Rodgers in the . With discipline restored, Constitution again resumed uneventful duty and MacDonough resigned his command for health reasons on 9 October 1825. Constitution put in for repairs during December and into January 1826, until Daniel Todd Patterson assumed command on 21 February. By August she had put into Port Mahon suffering decay of her spar deck and remained there until temporary repairs were made in March 1827. Constitution returned to Boston 4 July 1828 and was placed on ordinary.^[21]

Old Ironsides

In an era when a wooden ship had an expected service life of ten to fifteen years, Constitution had far outlived that, as she was now 31-years-old. A routine order for surveys of ships held in ordinary was requested by the Secretary of the Navy John Branch and the commandant of the Charlestown Navy Yard, Charles Morris, estimated a repair cost of over $157,000. On 14 September 1830, an article appeared in the Boston Advertiser that erroneously claimed the Navy intended to scrap Constitution. Two days later, Oliver Wendell Holmes' poem "Old Ironsides" was published in the same paper and later all over the country, igniting indignation from the public to save "Old Ironsides" from the scrap yard. Secretary Branch approved the costs and she began a leisurely repair period while awaiting completion of the drydock then under construction at the yard.^[20][21] In contrast to the efforts to save Constitution, another round of surveys in 1834 would find ^[17] unfit for repair and she was unceremoniously broken up in 1835.^[6]

The Andrew Jackson figurehead of Constitution as depicted by Harpers Weekly 1875^[55]

On 24 June 1833 she entered the drydock with a crowd of observers, among them Vice President Martin Van Buren, Levi Woodbury, Lewis Cass and Levi Lincoln. Captain Jesse Elliott, as the new commander of the Navy yard, would oversee her reconstruction. With of hog in her keel, Constitution remained in drydock until 21 June 1834. This would be the first of many times that souvenirs would be made from her old planking; Isaac Hull instructed the making of canes, picture frames and even a phaeton that was presented to President Andrew Jackson. Meanwhile, Elliot had directed the installation of new figurehead of President Jackson under the bowsprit which became a subject of much controversy due to Jackson being politically unpopular in Boston at the time. Elliot, a Jacksonian Democrat,^[8] would receive death threats; and then rumors began about the citizens of Boston storming the Navy yard to remove the figurehead themselves.^[15][20][21]

A merchant Captain named Samuel Dewey, a cousin of George Dewey, accepted a small wager that he could complete the task of removal. Elliot had posted guards on Constitution to ensure safety of the figurehead but using the noise of thunderstorms to mask his movements, Dewey crossed the Charles River in a small boat and managed to saw off Jackson's head. The severed head would make rounds between taverns and meeting houses in Boston until Dewey personally returned it to Secretary of the Navy Mahlon Dickerson where it remained on Dickerson's library shelf for many years. An 1855 letter to the editor of the New York Times would report the story again years later. Escaping controversy of any kind was the addition of three busts depicting Isaac Hull, William Bainbridge and Charles Stewart to her stern.^{[15][20][21][56]}

Mediterranean and Pacific Squadrons

Elliot had himself appointed Captain of Constitution and got underway to New York in March 1835 where he ordered repairs to the Jackson figurehead, avoiding a second round of controversy. This time Jackson would remain in place unmolested until 1876.^[15] Departing 16 March, Constitution set a course for France to deliver Edward Livingston to his post as Minister where she arrived 10 April and began the return voyage 16 May narrowly avoiding being wrecked off the Scilly Isles due to the navigation from her Officer of the Deck. She arrived back in Boston 23 June and sailed 19 August to take her station as flagship in the Mediterranean arriving at Port Mahon on 19 September. Her duty over the next two years was mostly uneventful as she and made routine patrols and diplomatic visits. From April 1837 into February 1838 Elliot began collecting various ancient artifacts to carry back to America and finally collecting various livestock during the return voyage where Constitution arrived in Norfolk on 31 July. Elliot would later be suspended from duty for transporting livestock on a Navy ship.^[8][21]

As flagship of the Pacific Squadron under the command of Captain Daniel Turner, she began her voyage on 1 March 1839 with the duty of patrolling the western side of South America. Often spending months in one port or another, she visited Valparaíso, Callao, Paita and Puna while her crew amused themselves with the beaches and taverns in each locality. The return voyage found her at Rio de Janeiro about 29 August 1841 where Emperor Pedro II of Brazil visited her. Departing Rio she collided with only suffering minor damage and returned to Hampton Roads on 31 October. On 22 June 1842 she was recommissioned under the command of Foxhall Alexander Parker for duty with the Home Squadron. After spending months in port she only put to sea for 3 weeks during December and was again put in ordinary.^[8][21]

Around the World

Under the command of John "Mad Jack" Percival. she underwent a refitting and recommissioned 24 March 1844 for a scheduled three year circumnavigation of the world. She got underway on 29 May carrying Henry A. Wise, the new Minister to Brazil and his family arriving at Rio de Janeiro 2 August after making two port visits along the way. Remaining there to pack away supplies for the planned journey, she sailed again on 8 September making port calls at Madagascar, Mozambique, and Zanzibar, arriving at Sumatra 1 January 1845. Many of her crew began to suffer from dysentery and fevers causing several deaths which led Percival to set course for Singapore arriving there 8 February. While in Singapore, Commodore Henry Ducie Chads of the paid a visit to Constitution offering what medical assistance his squadron could provide. Chads had been the Lieutenant of when he surrendered to William Bainbridge thirty-three years earlier.^[21]

Leaving Singapore she arrived at Turon, Cochinchina (present day Da Nang, Vietnam) on 10 May. Not long after, Percival was informed that a French missionary, Dominique Lefevre, was being held captive and had been sentenced to death. Percival and a squad of Marines went ashore to speak with the local Mandarin. Percival demanded the return of Lefevre and took three local leaders hostage to ensure his demands were met. When no communication was forthcoming he ordered the capture of three junks which were brought to Constitution. Percival released the hostages after two days, attempting to show good faith towards the Mandarin when he had demanded their return. During a squall the three junks escaped up river requiring a detachment of Marines to pursue and recapture them. When the supply of food and water from shore was stopped, Percival had to give in to another demand for the release of the junks in order to keep his ship supplied, which he did expecting Lefevre to be released. Soon realizing that no return would be made, Percival ordered Constitution to depart on 26 May.^[21]

Arriving at Canton, China on 20 June she would spend the next six weeks there while Percival made shore and diplomatic visits. Again the crew would suffer from dysentery due to poor drinking water resulting in three more deaths by the time she reached Manila on 18 September. Spending a week there preparing to enter the Pacific Ocean she sailed on 28 September for the Hawaiian Islands arriving at Honolulu on 13 November.^[21]

African Squadron

In the 1853 - 1855 she patrolled the African coast in search of slavers.

Civil War

In 1860, Constitution was laid up at the Portsmouth Navy Yard for conversion into a training ship and then assigned to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. At the outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861, Constitution was ordered to relocate farther north after threats had been made against her. Several companies of Massachusetts volunteer soldiers were stationed aboard for her protection. The towed her to New York City, where she arrived on April 29. She was subsequently relocated to Newport, Rhode Island, along with the Naval Academy for the duration of the war. Her sister ship was abandoned by the Union and then captured by Confederate forces at Norfolk, Virginia, leaving Constitution the only remaining frigate of the original six.^[12][48][57]

In honor of Constitution?s tradition of service, the US Navy bestowed the name on an ironclad that was launched 10 May 1862 as part of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and participated in the bombardment of Fort Sumter on 7 April 1863. Unfortunately, New Ironsides naval career was short-lived; she was destroyed by fire on 16 December 1865 while in ordinary at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.^[58] In August 1865 Constitution moved back to Annapolis, along with the rest of the Naval Academy. During the voyage she was allowed to drop her tow lines from the tug and continue alone under sail. Despite her age, she was recorded running at and arrived at Hampton Roads ten hours ahead of the tug.^[48]

Constitution as a barracks ship ca 1905

Museum Ship

A grateful public once again rescued her from imminent destruction in 1905 and she was thereafter partially restored for use as a national museum. In 1917 she was renamed Old Constitution, to free her name for a planned new Lexington-class battlecruiser, . Constitution (CC-5) was canceled in 1923 (only 14 percent completed) due to the Washington Naval Treaty^[60].

In 1925 the ship, once again bearing the name Constitution, entered a restoration period at the direction of Secretary of the Navy Curtis D. Wilbur. Wilbur sponsored a campaign to collect pennies from schoolchildren and larger monetary donations from patriotic groups. The 1926 silent film Old Ironsides portrays Constitution during the First Barbary War.^[61][62]

After being recommissioned on July 1, 1931, under the command of Louis J. Gulliver and a crew of sixty, she set out with much celebration and a 21-gun salute in tow by the ^[63], for a tour of 90 port cities along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts. However, some controversy had erupted from Navy veterans after comments doubting the ability of the modern Navy to still sail a vessel of her type were made by then Assistant Secretary of the Navy Ernest Jahncke. Jahncke later claimed the schedule of visits on her itinerary didn't allow for potential delays caused by being under sail.^[62]

Nevertheless, her first stop was Portsmouth, New Hampshire, a port well known to her from the War of 1812. She went as far north as Bar Harbor, Maine on the Atlantic coast, through the Panama Canal Zone, and up to Bellingham, Washington on the Pacific Coast. shared part of the towing duties on the return trip from San Diego to the Canal Zone during March and April 1934. Constitution returned to her home port of Boston in May of 1934 after more than 4.6 million people had visited her during the three-year journey.^{[64] [65]}

In 1940, she was placed in permanent commission, and an act of Congress in 1954 made the Secretary of the Navy responsible for her upkeep. In early 1941, Constitution was assigned the hull classification symbol IX-21 (the "IX" hull code stands for "Unclassified Miscellaneous"), but was reclassified to "none" on 1 September 1975.^[60]

On July 11, 1976, as part of her Bicentennial visit to the United States, Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh came to Boston and toured the ship with Commanding Officer Tyrone G. Martin.^[48] Secretary of the Navy J. William Middendorf presented the queen with a sea chest made from original wood that had been removed from the hull of Constitution during refurbishment in the early 1970s.

In August, 1986 the Constitution was the site of a celebration held to honor the retirement of Rear Admiral Grace Hopper, who received the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the nations highest non-combat award. At the time of the award, Admiral Hopper was the oldest officer in the United States Navy (age 80), and aboard the oldest ship in the United States Navy (age 189).^[66]

Reconstruction

USS Constitution salutes USS Ramage, USS Halyburton, and the Blue Angels in Massachusetts Bay on July 21, 1997.

Constitution entered drydock in 1992 for what had been planned as an inspection and minor repair period that turned out to be her most comprehensive structural restoration and repair since she was launched in 1797. Over the 200 years of her career, as her mission had changed from a fighting warship to a training ship including having a barracks structure built on her spar deck, the multiple refittings had removed most of her original construction components and design. As early as 1820 the diagonal riders originally specified by Joshua Humphreys had been removed.^[67]

In 1993 the Naval Historical Center Detachment Boston reviewed Humphreys' original plans and identified five main structural components that were required to prevent hogging of a ship's hull as Constitution had at this point of hog. Using a 1:16 scale model of the ship, they were able to determine that restoring the original components would result in a 10% increase in hull stiffness.^[67]

Using radiography, a technique unavailable during previous reconstruction, 300 scans of the timbers in Constitution were done to find hidden problems otherwise undetectable from the outside. Aided by the United States Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory the repair crew performed Sonic testing to determine the condition of the remaining timbers that may have been rotting from the inside. Some of hog was removed from her keel by allowing the ship to settle naturally while in drydock.^[68]

The most daunting task was and still remains the procurement of timber in the quantity and sizes needed for the restoration. The city of Charleston, South Carolina donated live oak trees that had been felled by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 and other construction projects in the Southeastern United States. The International Paper Company also donated live oak from its own property.^[68]

The majority of the white oak required by Constitution is raised in "Constitution Grove", a tract of land located at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division in Indiana. Planning future repair work on Constitution requires allowing the timbers, some sized at up to enough time to dry properly which can take up to ten years per timber.^[68]

Preparing for sail

On July 21, 1997, as part of her 200th birthday celebration, Constitution set sail for the first time in 116 years. She was towed from her usual berth in Boston en route to an overnight mooring in Marblehead. The visit to Marblehead marked the first time since 1934 that the ship had been absent overnight from its berth in Charlestown. Embarked dignitaries among the approximately 450 personnel onboard included the Secretary of the Navy, Chief of Naval Operations, the Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps (General Richard I. Neal), Senator Kennedy, and Walter Cronkite, an avid sailor. A little more than five nautical miles offshore, the tow line was dropped, and the commanding officer (Commander Mike Beck, USN) ordered her six sails set ? (jibs, topsails, and driver). Constitution then sailed unassisted for 40 minutes on a South South East course. With true wind speeds of about 12 knots, the ship attained a top recorded speed of six and a half knots. (See info box picture at top.) While under sail, her modern naval combatant escorts, and , rendered Passing Honors to Old Ironsides. The ship was overflown by the Blue Angels, honoring the ship's first sail in over 116 years. Inbound to her permanent berth at Charlestown the following evening, she rendered a 21-gun salute to the nation, abeam Fort Independence (Castle Island) in Boston Harbor.^[69]

Present Day Constitution

Constitution renders a 21-gun salute to the Nation off Fort Independence during her Independence Day turnaround cruise.

The modern day role of "Old Ironsides" is that of "ship of state". USS Constitution is today considered the most famous vessel in American naval history. Her mission is to promote the Navy to millions of visitors and observers each year. The crew of 55 sailors participates in ceremonies, educational programs and special events (including sail drill) while keeping the ship open to visitors year-round and providing free tours. The crew are all active-duty sailors and the assignment is considered special duty in the Navy. Traditionally, the duty of captain of the vessel is assigned to an active duty Navy commander.

While Constitution is the oldest fully commissioned vessel afloat^[70], she is not the oldest commissioned.^[71] HMS Victory holds the honor of being the oldest commissioned warship by three decades, however Victory is permanently drydocked.^[72]

Carronade on the deck of the Constitution

Constitution is berthed at Pier 1 of the former Charlestown Navy Yard at one end of Boston's Freedom Trail. She is open to the public year round. However, as a commissioned U.S. Navy ship, a visit to "Old Ironsides" is subject to Navy provisions and the fact that she occasionally puts out to sea. The private USS Constitution Museum is nearby, located in a restored shipyard building at the foot of Pier 2.

In 2007, the Constitution?s commander, Thomas C. Graves was relieved of command and reassigned after being accused of abusing his subordinates. The charges were settled at a private U.S. Navy hearing on October 26, 2007.^[78]

In October, Constitution entered a period of repair expected to last until September 2009. During this time the entire spar deck will be stripped down to the support beams and the current Douglas fir decking will be restored to its original wood that consisted of white oak and yellow pine. The maintenance will also restore the original camber to the deck which will allow water to wash overboard and not remain standing on the deck areas. Constitution will remain open for visitors but there will be no turnaround cruises.^[79][80]

In November, Lieutenant Commander John Scivier of the Royal Navy, commanding officer of the , paid a visit to Constitution touring the local facilities with Commander William A. Bullard III, "Old Ironsides" commanding officer. Both officers discussed the idea to arrange an exchange program between the two ships.^[81]

Constitution in literature, film, and popular culture

USS Constitution underway for her annual turn around cruise

• C. S. Forester's Hornblower and the Hotspur has Constitution berthed at Cadiz, Spain in 1803 during the mission against the Barbary States, where she plays a role in the "Doughty" subplot.^[82]

• In the movie, Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World, the fictional French frigate Acheron was computer modeled after the Constitution, using a stem to stern digital image scan of the real Old Ironsides.^[50]

• The 1st Armored Division of the United States Army is nicknamed "Old Ironsides" in honor of the ship.^[83]

• Space Shuttle Enterprise (OV-101) was originally planned to have been named Constitution.^[84]

• In the fictional Star Trek universe there are Constitution class starships.^[85]

• Secretary of the Navy John H. Dalton gave a speech including an anecdote about Old Ironsides where he described the voracious drinking habits of sailors during the War of 1812.^[86]

References

Books

• For young readers

External links

US Navy links

• Official USS ''Constitution'' homepage
• Old Ironsides' Battle Record, including original documents
• ''Constitution''?s U.S. Navy Fact File entry

General links

• USS ''Constitution'' Museum
• HNSA Web Page: USS Constitution
• local.live.com Bird's Eye View of USS ''Constitution'' at port
• Maritimequest USS ''Constitution'' Photo Gallery
• Boston National Historical Park Official Website
• ''Constitution'' and ''Grebe'' in Houston, 1932

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