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Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution
Amendment XXII in the National Archives The Twenty-second Amendment (Amendment XXII) of the United States Constitution sets a term limit for the President of the United States. The United States Congress passed the amendment on March 21, 1947.[1] It was ratified by the requisite number of states on February 27, 1951. Franklin D. Roosevelt, who served from 1933 to 1945, is the only president elected to more than two terms. Though under the 22nd amendment it would be possible for a president to serve up to ten years ? having succeeded to the presidency of his predecessor with two years or less remaining in that term ? no president besides Roosevelt has ever served more than eight years exactly.[2]
TextHistoryHistorians point to George Washington's decision not to seek a third term as evidence that the Founders saw a two-term limit as convention and a bulwark against a monarchy; his Farewell Address, however, suggests that it was because of his age that he did not seek reelection. Thomas Jefferson also contributed to the convention of a two-term limit; in 1807 he wrote, "if some termination to the services of the chief Magistrate be not fixed by the Constitution, or supplied by practice, his office, nominally four years, will in fact become for life."[3] Jefferson?s immediate successors, James Madison and James Monroe, also adhered to the two-term principle. Prior to Franklin D. Roosevelt, few Presidents attempted to serve for more than two terms. Ulysses S. Grant sought a third term in 1880 after serving from 1869 to 1877, but narrowly lost his party's nomination. Theodore Roosevelt, who served from 1901 to 1909, sought to be elected in 1912 (non-consecutively) for a second time—he succeeded to the presidency upon William McKinley's assassination and already been elected in 1904 to a full term himself—but he lost to Woodrow Wilson. In 1940, FDR became the first person to be elected more than twice; supporters cited the war in Europe as a reason for breaking with precedent. In the 1944 election, during World War II, he won a fourth term, but died in office the following year. After Roosevelt's death, the newly Republican 80th United States Congress desired to establish a firm constitutional provision barring presidents from being elected more than twice. The rationale was a concern that without limits, the presidential position could become too similar to that of a benevolent dictator lasting not just four years but a lifetime, and that the position could become too powerful and upset the separation of powers. Hence, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. Proposal and ratificationCongress proposed the Twenty-second Amendment on March 21, 1947.[4] The following states ratified the amendment:
Ratification was completed on February 27, 1951. The amendment was subsequently ratified by the following states:
The amendment was rejected by the following states:
Criticism of the amendmentDwight D. Eisenhower expressed his strong opposition to term limits, saying, "The United States ought to be able to choose for its President anybody it wants, regardless of the number of terms he has served."[5] Ronald Reagan publicly supported repealing the amendment. Bill Clinton stated his support for repealing the amendment and replacing it with one that prohibits people from serving more than two consecutive terms, but permitting them to seek election after an intervening term.[6] Some have criticized the Amendment as a potential erosion of a second-term president's power and influence, as the president becomes a political lame duck. The term was coined by 18th century English stockbrokers to mean someone who is bankrupt, but later came to mean anyone who has been made weak and ineffective. It now most often applies to politicians who are soon to leave office. This effect was referred to by President George W. Bush when, after winning his second term, he told the media "I'm going to come out strong after my swearing-in. We have to move quickly, because after that I'll be quacking like a duck."[7] Interaction with the Twelfth AmendmentSome have questioned the interpretation of the Twenty-second Amendment as it relates to the Twelfth Amendment, ratified in 1804, which provides that "no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States." While it is clear that under the Twelfth Amendment the original constitutional qualifications of age, citizenship, and residency apply to both the President and Vice President, it is unclear if a two-term President could later be elected—or appointed—Vice President. Some argue[8] that the Twenty-second Amendment and Twelfth Amendment bar any two-term President from later serving as Vice President as well as from succeeding to the presidency from any point in the United States presidential line of succession. Others contend that while a two-term President is ineligible to be elected or appointed to the office of Vice President, he or she could succeed from a lower position in the line of succession which he or she is not excluded from holding. Others contend[9][10] that the Twelfth Amendment concerns qualification for service, while the Twenty-second Amendment concerns qualifications for election. Neither theory has ever been tested, as no former President has ever sought the Vice Presidency, and thus, the courts have never had an opportunity to decide the question. Individuals restricted by the amendmentThe Amendment prohibits any person who has succeeded to the Presidency and served as President or as Acting President for more than two years of their predecessor's unexpired term from being elected more than once. Since the Amendment's ratification, the only President who could have served more than two terms under this circumstance was Lyndon B. Johnson. He became President in 1963 when John F. Kennedy was assassinated, served only 14 months of Kennedy's term, and was elected President in 1964. Had Johnson stayed in the race in 1968 and won, he would have served nine years and two months in all when he reached the end of the new term. The amendment specifically excluded the sitting president (Harry S. Truman) at the time it was proposed by Congress. Truman, who had served most of FDR's unexpired fourth term and who had been elected to a full term in 1948, began a campaign for a third term in 1952, but quit after a poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. The only Presidents thus far who have served two full terms since the Amendment's ratification are Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. Gerald Ford became president on August 9, 1974 and was in office for more than two years of the unexpired term of Richard Nixon. Had Ford won a full term in 1976 (he narrowly lost to Jimmy Carter), he would have been barred from being elected again despite only being elected once. No Vice President was elected to serve two full terms as President after assuming the Presidency after the death or resignation of a President. Theodore Roosevelt unsuccessfully sought a second term four years after serving a full term after succeeding William McKinley. Current restrictions and limitationsAs of 2008, the following former and current Presidents are restricted by this amendment:
As of 2008, the following former Presidents are permitted to be elected for one more term:
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