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Sustainability

The Earth Day flag includes a NASA photo of the Earth.
The Earth Day flag includes a NASA photo of the Earth.

Sustainability is a characteristic of a process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely. As applied to the human community, it is the ability to sustain a way of life indefinitely (within the given limits of life on Earth). Sustainability is often defined as the practical ability to satisfy the basic needs of today without compromising the ability of future generations to satisfy their needs.[1] Or to state it another way, sustainability is the management of environmental and resource systems so that their ability to support future generations is not diminished.[2] A sustainable society must be organized in such a way that the ways of living and the patterns of activity of its members are not in conflict with the inherent ability of nature to maintain life.[3]

Sustainability requires that human activity only utilizes nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The term has its roots in ecology as the ability of an ecosystem to maintain ecological processes, functions, biodiversity and productivity into the future.[4] Vital human ecological support systems include the planet's climatic system, systems of agriculture, industry, forestry, fisheries and the systems on which they depend in turn. In recent years, public discourse has led to a use of "sustainability" in reference to how long human ecological systems can be expected to be usefully productive.

The implied preference would be for systems to be productive indefinitely, or be "sustainable." For example, "sustainable agriculture" would develop agricultural systems to last indefinitely; "sustainable economy" can be an economic system that can last indefinitely, etc. A side discourse relates the term sustainability to longevity of natural ecosystems and reserves (set aside for other-than-human species), but the challenging emphasis has been on human systems and anthropogenic problems, such as anthropogenic climate change, or the depletion of fossil fuel reserves. Sustainability can be examined on a number of levels, from local all the way to planetary.

Contents

Historical background

Main articles: environmentalism, United Nations Conference on the Environment, Brundtland Commission, Earth Summit (1992), Agenda 21, Millennium Declaration, Earth Summit 2002, Millennium Development Goals, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.

Beginning with the environmental movement of the 1960s there has been an increasing awareness that human use of the Earth is approaching a range of environmental and resource limits and that this trend, rather than diminishing, is escalating at an alarming rate. [5] [6] [7]

Flag of The United Nations.
Flag of The United Nations.
During the 1970s, while the developed world was considering the effects of the global population explosion, pollution and consumerism, the developing countries, faced with continued poverty and deprivation, regarded development as essential - to provide the necessities of food, clean water and shelter. The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Environment held in Stockholm was the UN's first major conference on international environmental issues and marked the beginning of global cooperation in developing environmental policies and strategies. In 1980 the International Union for the Conservation of Nature had published its influential World Conservation Strategy[8] followed in 1982 by its World Charter for Nature[9] which drew attention to the decline of the world?s ecosystems. Faced with the differing priorities of the developed and developing world the United Nation?s World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission) worked for two years to try and resolve the apparent conflict between the environment and development. The Commission concluded that development was acceptable but it must now be different: it must be sustainable development. Development needed to be directed to meeting the needs of the poor in a way that no longer caused environmental problems but helped to solve them or, in the words of the Commission in 1987:

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. [1][10]

United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly
In the same year the Commission?s book Our Common Future was launched and that, effectively, began the era of sustainability. The 1992 UN Environmental Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil produced the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development Earth Summit (1992) with an action agenda, Agenda 21, overseen by the Commission on Sustainable Development[11]. At Rio negotiations also began for an international agreement on climate change (which eventually lead to the Kyoto Protocol); agreements on forestry were forged and the Convention on Biological Diversity was initiated. By the time of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit 2002), held in Johannesburg, delegates included representatives from the World Business Council for Sustainable Development and thousands of local governments reporting on how they had implemented Local Agenda 21 and the Cities for Climate Protection program.[12] A broad-based consensus had been reached on what was to be done. This Summit, building on the 2000 United Nations Millennium Declaration, produced eight Millennium Development Goals for 2015 (adopted by 189 countries) and established the "WEHAB" targets for water, energy, health, agriculture, and biodiversity. [13]

Definition

Main article: sustainable development.

Although the definition of sustainable development given by the Brundtland Commission is the most frequently quoted, it is not universally accepted and has undergone various interpretations.

Difficulty in defining sustainability stems in part from the fact that it encompasses the entire domain of human activity. It is a very general concept like "liberty" or "justice", which is accepted as important, but a "dialogue of values"[14] that defies consensual definition.[15] It is also a call to action and therefore open to political interpretation concerning the nature of the current situation and the most appropriate way forward. The Brundtland Report plea to protect the environment for future generations is less controversial than the implied negotiation between environmental, social and economic interests recommended by the 2005 World Summit. A further practical difficulty with a universal definition is that the the strategies needed to address "sustainability"[16] vary according to the level of sustainability governance under consideration.

For a more tangible summation The European Environment Agency Sustainable Development Program has listed eight broad objectives that distil the thrust of the global sustainability agenda: [17]

  • provide future generations with the same environmental potential as presently exists (address intergenerational equity)
  • manage economic growth to be less resource intensive and less polluting (decouple economic growth from environmental deterioration)
  • better integrate sectoral and environmental policies (integrate sectors)
  • maintain and enhance the adaptive capacity of the environmental system (ensure environmental adaptability)
  • avoid irreversible long-term environmental damage to ecosystems and human health (prevent irreversible damage)
  • avoid imposing unfair or high environmental costs on vulnerable populations (ensure distributional equity)
  • assume responsibility for environmental effects that occur outside the area of jurisdiction (accept global responsibility)
  • introduce rules, processes and practices that ensure the uptake of sustainable development policies at all levels of sustainability governance (apply sustainability governance)

Environmental, social and economic cooperation

Main article: sustainable development.

The three pillars of sustainability
The three pillars of sustainability
The 2005 World Summit in New York declared that, to be effective, action on sustainability must involve cooperation across three sustainability "pillars": environment, society and economy. [18] Although it is critical that there is cooperation between the three pillars, in practice this often entails negotiation between competing interests.

Environmentalist disenchantment with some aspects of the global sustainability agenda can be attributed to the view that the environmental, social, and economic pillars cannot, strictly, be treated as equal. The notion of sustainable development is sometimes resisted because many regard it as an oxymoron ? that development is inevitably carried out at the expense of the environment.[19] Environmentalists emphasize the global environment as the ecological and material basis of human existence that is being progressively degraded. If we were to live in acknowledgement of this fact then economies should address the goals of the societies they serve, and these societies, in turn, should recognise their dependence on natural resources.[20] However, this ranking is often observed in reverse order. By placing such strong emphasis on economic growth as a core human value, and investing such little effort in protecting the biosphere, we are setting ourselves on a trajectory of self destruction.[21] One consequence of this discussion is that for many people sustainability means simply environmental sustainability the reduction of human impact on the Earth?s resources and environmental services to a sustainable level - without full consideration of the social and economic dimensions needed to achieve this.

International program

Main articles: Earth Charter, sustainability science, sustainable development, sustainability governance, sustainability accounting.

Sustainability as an international program committed to the provision of a secure environmental, social and economic future arose in the 1980s through the United Nations program for sustainable development. As this program unfolded three key areas emerged: sustainability science as the academic study that examines and underpins the broad, inclusive, and contradictory currents that humankind will need to navigate toward a just and sustainable future;[22] sustainability governance[23] [24] as the process of implementation of sustainability strategies; and sustainability accounting,[25] [26] as the evidence-based quantitative information used to guide governance by providing benchmarks and measuring progress.

Environmental pillar

Main articles: biodiversity, ecosystem services, conservation biology, environmental sustainability, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Living Planet Report 2006, Convention on Biological Diversity, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, lists of environmental topics, conservation biology, list of global sustainability statistics, list of environmental agreements.

Land for nature - Catalonia
Land for nature - Catalonia
Land for humans - Chicago
Land for humans - Chicago
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment provides the most comprehensive current synthesis of the state of the Earth?s ecosystems. Ecosystem services are the life-support system of the planet and the rapidly escalating and potentially critical nature of human global impact on the environment over the last 50 years is now the source of major biological concern. [27] [24]

At a fundamental level human impact on the Earth is being manifest through changes in the global biogeochemical cycles of chemicals that are critical to life, most notably water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. There is now sound scientific evidence that human activity is having a significant impact on all of these cycles.[28]

<gallery caption="GLOBAL GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES CRITICAL FOR LIFE" widths="140px" heights="80px" perrow="4"> Image:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg|Nitrogen Cycle Image:Water cycle.png|Water Cycle Image:Carbon cycle-cute diagram.svg|Carbon Cycle Image:Oxygen Cycle.jpg|Oxygen Cycle </gallery>

Direct global environmental impacts

There are two major ways of managing human impact on the planet. The first is to monitor and manage direct impacts on the oceans and freshwater systems, the land and atmosphere (see direct impacts below). This kind of management is based on information gained from environmental science and conservation biology.[27] However, it is management based more or effects (results) rather than causes (drivers). The main driver of direct impacts on land, sea and air is the human demand for food, energy, materials and water [29] (see indirect impacts below). It is management of consumer demand for these basic resources that is now a major study area for sustainability science.

Atmosphere

Main topics: Earth?s atmosphere, climate change, acid rain, ozone depletion, air pollution, indoor air pollution, decarbonisation.

Use of the atmosphere
Use of the atmosphere
Top of the atmosphere
Top of the atmosphere
The most obvious human impact on the atmosphere is the pollution of the air in our cities, the pollutants including toxic chemicals such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter that produce photochemical smog and acid rain, although it is climate change and the carbon cycle that have become a major focus of research (see Energy below).

However, the atmosphere not only provides the medium that we breathe but also plays a vital role in climate and weather control, cloud formation and major weather events. Damage to the Earth's protective stratospheric ozone layer through the use of chlorofluorocarbons appears to now be under control as a result of successful international environmental governance.

One recently observed effect of anthropogenic particulates such as sulphate aerosols in the atmosphere has been the reduction in the direct irradiance of the Earth's surface. Known as global dimming the decrease is estimated at about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although the trend has subsequently reversed. Global dimming may have disturbed the global water cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas: it also creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming.[30] [31]

Oceans

Thorsmork, Iceland
Thorsmork, Iceland
Main topics: overfishing, ocean acidification, pollution.
Saltwater fish
Saltwater fish
Oceans and their circulation patterns have a critical effect on climate and the food supply for both humans and other organisms. Major environmental impacts occur in the more habitable regions of the oceans ? the estuaries, coastline and bays. Because of their vastness oceans act as a dumping ground for human waste. Trends of concern include: ocean warming, reef bleaching and sea level rise, all due to climate change together with the possibility for a sudden alteration of present-day ocean currents which could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe; over-fishing (beyond sustainable levels); and ocean acidification due to dissolved carbon dioxide.[7]

Remedial strategies include: more careful waste management, statutory control of overfishing, reduction of fossil fuel emissions, and restoration of coastal and other marine habitat.

Land

Main articles: Land use, land-use change and forestry, land cover, urbanization, deforestation.

Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere. This includes alteration to biogeochemical cycles, effects of agriculture, proportions of forest and woodland, grassland and pasture.[7]

Forests

Main articles: forestry, deforestation, carbon sequestration, climate change.

Historically about 47% of the world?s forests have been lost to human use. Present-day forests occupy about a quarter of the world?s ice-free land with about half occurring in the tropics [32] In temperate and boreal regions forest area is gradually increasing (with the exception of Siberia), but deforestation in the tropics is of major concern.

Beech Forest - Grib Skov, Denmark
Beech Forest - Grib Skov, Denmark
Forests can moderate the local climate and the global water cycle through their light reflectance (albedo) and evapotranspiration. They also conserve biodiversity, protect water quality, preserve soil and soil quality, provide fuel and pharmaceuticals, and purify the air. These free ecosystem services have no market value and so forest conservation has little appeal when compared with the economic benefits of logging and clearance which, through soil degradation and organic decomposition returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has estimated that about 90% of the carbon stored in land vegetation is locked up in trees and that they sequester about 50% more carbon than is present in the atmosphere. Changes in land use currently contribute about 20% of total global carbon emissions (in heavily logged Indonesia and Brazil it is the greatest source of emissions).[33] Climate change can be mitigated by sequestering carbon in reafforestation schemes, new plantations, and timber products. Wood biomass is a renewable carbon-neutral fuel.

The FAO has concluded that, over the period 2005?2050, effective use of tree planting could absorb about 10?20% of man-made emissions ? so clearly we need to monitor the condition of the world's forests very closely (both reafforestation and deforestation) as they must be part of any coordinated emissions mitigation strategy.[34]

Cultivated land

Main articles: agriculture, Green Revolution.

Rice Paddy
Rice Paddy
Feeding more than six billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the Earth?s resources. This begins with the human appropriation of about 38% [35] of the Earth?s land surface and about 20% of its net primary productivity[36]. Added to this are the resource-hungry activities of industrial agribusiness ? everything from the initial cultivation need for irrigation water, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of food packaging, transport (now a major part of global trade) and retail. The benefits of food production are obvious: without food we cannot survive. But the list of costs is a long one: topsoil depletion, erosion and conversion to desert from tillage for monocultures of annual crops; overgrazing; salinization; sodification; waterlogging; high levels of fossil fuel use; reliance on inorganic fertilisers and synthetic organic pesticides; reductions in genetic diversity by the mass use of monocultures; water resource depletion; pollution of waterbodies by run-off and groundwater contamination; social problems including the decline of family farms and weakening of rural communities.[37]

Extinctions

Main articles: extinction, International Union for Conservation of Nature.

The Dodo (Raphus cucullatus)
The Dodo (Raphus cucullatus)

In line with human migration and population growth, species extinctions have progressively increased to a rate unprecedented since the Cretaceous?Tertiary extinction event. Known as the Holocene extinction event this human-induced extinction of species ranks as one of the worlds six mass extinction events. Some scientific estimates indicate that up to half of presently existing species may become extinct by 2100.[38][39]

Loss of biodiversity can be attributed largely to the appropriation of land for agroforestry. Current extinction rate are 100 to 1000 times their prehuman levels with more than 10% birds and mammals threatened, about 8% of plants and 5% of fish and more than 20% of freshwater species.[7]

Biological invasions

Pueraria lobata, Kudzu infesting trees in Atlanta, Georgia
Pueraria lobata, Kudzu infesting trees in Atlanta, Georgia
Main articles: introduced species, invasive species.

Increasingly efficient global transport has facilitated the spread of organisms across the planet. The most stark examples are human diseases like HIV AIDS, mad cow disease and bird flu but invasive plants and animals are now, after climate change and land clearing, the greatest threat to native biodiversity.[40] Non-indigenous organisms often quickly occupy disturbed land but can also devastate natural areas where, in the absence of their natural predators, they are able to thrive.

Freshwater

Main articles: freshwater, desalination, limnology, list of countries by freshwater withdrawal, list of countries by total renewable water resources, water resources, water crisis.

River Fluvia, Catalonia
River Fluvia, Catalonia
Freshwater habitat is the world?s most vulnerable of the major biological systems due to the human need for potable water for food irrigation, industry and domestic use. Human freshwater withdrawals make up about 10% of global freshwater runoff. [6] and of this 15-35% is considered unsustainable - a proportion that is likely to increase as climate change worsens, populations increase, and water supplies become polluted and unsanitary.[27]

In the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but in the developing world water security, and therefore food security, remain among the most important issues to address. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water.[7]

Indirect global environmental impacts

Main article: appropriate technology

The direct impacts on the environment described above are the result of a long chain of causal factors, which is why managing direct human impacts on oceans, atmosphere and land is sometimes called "end of pipe" management; it does not manage the indirect "start of pipe" drivers of this impact which can be reduced to three fundamental factors:

People - our numbers and consumption patterns (resource use) relate directly to environmental impacts
People - our numbers and consumption patterns (resource use) relate directly to environmental impacts

  • population numbers
  • levels of consumption (affluence)
  • impact per unit of resource use (which is a result of the technology used)

This has been expressed through an equation: [41]

I = PAT
where:
I = environmental impact
P = population
A = affluence
T = technology

This equation has been criticised because: affluence may provide the means to tackle environmental problems; the equation does not include social considerations such the effect of efficient environmental governance; it is difficult to apply in a realistic and useful way. [42] Nevertheless, it provides a strong starting point for discussion.

Addressing sustainability now focuses much of its attention on managing levels of consumption and resource impact by seeking, for example, to modify individual lifestyles, and to apply ideas like ethical consumerism, dematerialisation and decarbonisation, while at the same time exploring more environmentally friendly technology and methods through ecodesign and industrial ecology.

At present individual and household use of resources like energy and water is monitored through domestic water and energy bills and car fuel use ? but much greater quantities of these resources are embodied in the goods and services we use. In the same way society as a whole tends to consider environmental management in terms of direct impacts rather than their driver - human consumption. Patterns of consumption must reflect the cleverer use of resources: e.g. using renewable energy rather than fossil fuels and fewer embodied resources in goods and services.[43] [44]

Production, consumption, technology

Shopping
Shopping

Main topics: consumption, primary production, simple living, consumerism, ethical consumerism, biotechnology.

There is a lively debate about the relationship betwen natural and human capital - whether we must live off the interest of our natural capital (strong sustainability).[45]) or if it is possible to thrive indefinitely while taking more natural resources, provided total capital remains constant (weak sustainability).[46] Consumerism focuses on the end-product. It tends to stay away from the focus on the production and transportation stage of the goods.

Coming to terms with human consumption sustainability science focuses on four interconected and basic human resource needs - for: water (agriculture, industry, domestic use), energy (industry, transport, tools and appliances), materials (manufacturing, construction) and food (horticulture, agriculture and agribusiness)[29]. Each of these resources are discussed below.

Energy

Main articles: energy, climate change, decarbonisation, renewable energy.

Since the industrial revolution the concentrated energy of the Sunstored in fossilised plants as fossil fuels have been a major driver of technology and the source of both economic and political power.

In 2007, after prolonged skepticism about the human contribution to climate change, climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that this atmospheric increase in CO2 was human-induced - essentially due to fossil fuel emissions and, to a lesser extent, the CO2 released from changes in land use.

Projections for the coming century indicate that a minimum of 500 ppm can be expected and possibly as much as 1000 ppm. Stabilising the world?s climate will require high income countries to reduce their emissions by 60-90% over 2006 levels by 2050. This should stabilise atmospheric carbon dioxide levels at 450-650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm. Above this level and temperatures would probably rise by more than 2o C to produce ?catastrophic? climate change. [47][48] Reduction of current CO2 levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy-intensive high consumption Western lifestyles.[49]

Water

Main articles: water, water cycle, water resources, wastewater, irrigation.

. Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. . The oceans contain 97.2% of the Earth's water. . The Antarctic ice sheet (visible here at the South Pole) contains 90% of all fresh water on Earth. . Condensed atmospheric water, as clouds, contributes to the Earth's albedo.
. Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface.
. The oceans contain 97.2% of the Earth's water.
. The Antarctic ice sheet (visible here at the South Pole) contains 90% of all fresh water on Earth.
. Condensed atmospheric water, as clouds, contributes to the Earth's albedo.
Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only just begun as, during the 20th century, more than half the world?s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems. [50]

In the decade 1951-60 human water withdrawals were four times greater than the previous decade. This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological developments impacting through the economy - especially the increase in irrigated land, growth in industrial and power sectors, and intensive dam construction on all continents. This altered the water cycle of rivers and lakes, affected their water quality and therefore potential as a human resource, and altered the global water cycle. [51] Currently towards 35% of human water use is unsustainable, drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing flows of major rivers. [7]

Over the period 1961 to 2001 there was a doubling of demand and over the same period agricultural use increased by 75%, industrial use by more than 200%, and domestic use more than 400%. [7] Humans currently use 40-50% of the globally available freshwater in the approximate proportion of 70% for agriculture, 22% for industry, and 8% for domestic purposes and the total amount is progressively increasing being about five times that at the beginning of the 20th century. [51]

The path forward appears to lie in improving water use efficiency through: demand management; maximising water resource productivity of agriculture; minimising the water intensity (embodied water) of goods and services; addressing shortages in the non-industrialised world; moving production from areas of low productivity to those with high productivity; and planning for climate change.[50]

Materials

Materials ? The Materials Science Tetrahedron
Materials ? The Materials Science Tetrahedron
Main topics: ecolabelling, ecodesign, recycle, detoxification, extended producer responsibility.

Materials used by humans are still increasing in volume, number, diversity and toxicity. Synthetic chemical production is escalating and global transport systems accelerate distribution across the globe.[52] Much of the sustainability effort is directed at converting the linear path of materials from one of extraction to production and disposal as waste, to a cyclical one that reuses materials indefinitely, much like the waste cycle in nature.

Waste

Main articles: dematerialization, zero waste, industrial ecology.

Household waste
Household waste
International recycle symbol
International recycle symbol
As more "things" are transported round the world material flow analysis is becoming widely accepted as an important part of sustainability accounting at the national level. The linear path of products (extraction, manufacture, disposal in rubbish tip) is being converted to a more circular material flow (like that in nature) as the world comes to grips with dematerialization, decarbonisation and zero waste.[52] Industry, business and government are adopting the ideas of industrial metabolism, industrial ecology, ecodesign [53], ecolabelling, product stewardship, and extended producer responsibility. In addition to the well-established ?reduce, reuse and recycle? shoppers are using their purchasing power for ethical consumerism.[54] Government and business are using market incentives including deposits, refunds, taxes, advance disposal fees etc. to encourage sustainable materials use.

Food

Main articles: food, poverty, food security, food miles, organic agriculture, sustainable agriculture, vegetarianism.

A vegetarian smorgasboard
A vegetarian smorgasboard
Concerns about the environmental impacts of agribusiness and the stark contrast between the obesity problems of the Western world and the poverty and food insecurity of the developing world have generated a strong movement towards healthy, sustainable eating as a major component of overall ethical consumerism. [55]

The World Health Organisation has published a Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health which was endorsed by the May 2004 World Health Assembly. It recommends the Mediterranean diet which is associated with health and longevity and is low in meat, rich in fruits and vegetables, low in added sugar and limited salt, and low in saturated fatty acids; the traditional source of fat in the Mediterranean is olive oil, rich in monounsaturated fat. The healthy rice-based Japanese diet is also high in carbohydrates and low in fat. Both diets are low in meat and saturated fats and high in legumes and other vegetables; they are associated with a low incidence of ailments and low environmental impact.

At the local level there are various movements working towards more sustainable use of wastelands, peripheral urban land and domestic gardens. Included here would be permaculture, [56], urban horticulture, local food, slow food, organic gardening and the like.

Economic pillar

Main article: environmental economics, environmental law.

The Great Fish Market, painted by Jan Brueghel the Elder
The Great Fish Market, painted by Jan Brueghel the Elder
If we are to maintain and improve our standard of living then this must be done in a way that protects (is sustainable) for both the economy and the environment.

Ecological economics explores the interface between environmental issues and economics, especially in relation to how traditional market forces deal with diminishing natural resources. [57] In most circumstances, as commodity or service scarcity increases then the resultant increase in prices acts as a restraint that encourages technical innovation and alternative products. However, this principle applies only when the product or service falls within the market system. [58] Nature and natural resources are generally treated as economic externalities. While these services remain unpriced economic they will be overused and degraded, a situation referred to as the Tragedy of the Commons.

The economic importance of natural resources has been acknowledged by sustainability science through the use of the expression ecosystem services to indicate the market relevance of nature which can no longer be regarded as both unlimited and free. [59] Protecting the biological world is now becoming progressively subject to market strategies including environmental taxes and incentives, tradable permits for carbon, water and nitrogen use etc., together with an increasing willingness to accept payment for ecosystem services by these and other methods.

Decoupling environmental degradation and economic growth

Main article: environmental economics, resource intensity, resource productivity.

World GDP per capita by region for last 2000 years (100 yr slices)
World GDP per capita by region for last 2000 years (100 yr slices)
Over the second half of the 20th century, world population has doubled, food production has tripled, energy use quadrupled, and overall economic activity has quintupled. [60] Historically there has been a close correlation between economic growth and environmental degradation: as communities grow, so the environment declines. This trend is clearly demonstrated on graphs of human population numbers, economic growth, and environmental indicators.[7]

Unsustainable economic growth has been compared to the malignant growth of a cancer[61] because it eats away at the Earth's ecosystem services which are its life-support system. Mismanagement of finite natural resources by cultures such as the Maya, Anasazi and Easter Islanders eventually led to their demise by destroying their resource base [62] [63] and there is the concern that, unless growth is checked, planet Earth will follow a similar path.

Part of the task for sustainability is to find ways of reducing (decoupling) the amount of resource (e.g. water, energy, or materials) needed for the production, consumption and disposal of a unit of good or service. In other words the goal of sustainability is to minimise resource use per unit of product or money spent (the resource intensity) and to maximise the output per unit of resource input or money spent (the resource productivity).[64]

Social pillar

Everyone can contribute to a sustainable future, regardless of race or background, because everyone is a citizen of the global village
Everyone can contribute to a sustainable future, regardless of race or background, because everyone is a citizen of the global village
Main topics: list of global sustainability statistics, sustainability accounting, social accounting.

With the view that ?it is the responsibility of sustainability science to map the broad, inclusive, and contradictory currents that humankind will need to navigate toward a just and sustainable future? Kates and Parris have identified key interconnected areas that will need careful monitoring as part of a sustainability transition. [65] These are the areas needing rigorous sustainability accounting. Although environmental social and economic factors are closely interconnected the following items they list have a strong social dimension.

Peace and security

Main articles: war, peace, crime, corruption, security and environmental security.

War, crime and corruption divert resources from areas of greatest human need and generally threaten human well-being and the environment. Diminishing natural resources increase the likelihood of ?resource wars?:[66] this aspect of sustainability has been referred to as environmental security.

Population, migration, urbanization

Main topics: population, overpopulation, urbanization, megalopolis, migration.

Human population from 10,000 BC – AD 2000.
Human population from 10,000 BC – AD 2000.
The world population will likely increase by 2.5 billion over the next 43 years, passing from the current 6.7 billion to 9.2 billion in 2050. This increase is equivalent to the overall number of people in the world in 1950 and it will be absorbed mostly by the less developed regions, whose population is projected to rise from 5.4 billion in 2007 to 7.9 billion in 2050. In contrast, the population of the more developed regions is expected to remain largely unchanged at 1.2 billion and would have declined were it not for the projected net migration from developing to developed countries, which is expected to average 2.3 million persons a year after 2010. [67] Between-country migration and movement from rural to urban situations continues to increase. In some regions coalescence of urban centres has given rise to the term megalopolis. Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living standards of the Western world as does the non-industrialised world. Long-term estimates suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine billion people, and then slowly decreases to 8.4 billion by 2100. [68][69]

Affluence, poverty, well-being, health

Main topics: poverty, affluenza, well-being, environmental law

Money - we must improve the standard of living of the poor but maintain global sustainability
Money - we must improve the standard of living of the poor but maintain global sustainability
Per capita gross domestic product continues to increase around the world, except in Africa. Income inequality continues to grow both within and between countries. [70] Global disparity between affluent and poor people and nations is addressed by the Millennium Declaration. Human well-being as measured by the Human Development Index is, on average, improving in terms of life-expectancy, literacy, per capita income, gender equity and access to legal support. Health has improved with lower child mortality, improved nutrition and general health although there is still concern over AIDS and the potential for a global pandemic of an illness like bird flu, spread rapidly by modern transport.[6]

Globalisation, governance

Main articles: globalization, sustainability governance

The increasing globalization of trade and exchange of technology, along with increased migration, and communication together with a global approach to the management of environmental problems, are all indicative of an emergent global culture. The power of national governments appears to have decreased in the face of transnational and non-government organizations. Sustainability must be a key part of this increased connectedness and transition towards an international value system.[71]

The Sustainability Transition

Main articles: Ecological Footprint, Environmental Performance Index, Environmental Sustainability Index.

Almost all developed nations have an Ecological Footprint (the area of land needed to support a community and its waste) significantly larger than their geographic area - they are consuming more than they are producing. [72] The extra resources needed to maintain this level of consumption are gained in three ways: embedded in the goods and services of world trade; taken from the past (e.g. fossil fuels); or taken from the future as unsustainable resource usage.

The sustainable development goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels; that is, to not exceed "one planet" consumption.

At present the developing world per capita consumption is sustainable (as a global average) but population numbers are increasing and individuals are aspiring to high consumption Western lifestyles. The developed world population is stable (not increasing) but consumption levels are unsustainable. The task is to curb and manage Western consumption while raising the standard of living of the developing world without increasing its resource use and environmental impact. This must be done by using strategies and technology that decouple economic growth from environmental damage and resource depletion.[73]

Cultural, psychological and behavioural change

Further articles: Precautionary Principle, cultural change, ecopsychology, environmental psychology, environmental sociology.

Weight of scientific evidence is often insufficient to produce social change, especially if that change entails moving people out of their comfort zones. [74]

At present we have a cultural tradition that places a high value on material goods and a relatively low value on the natural world.

Barriers to sustainability

Barriers to sustainability include the following:

  • continued population growth
  • increasingly efficient and resource-hungry technology (extracting, processing, and distributing more in less time)
  • a social, political, and corporate culture that focuses on the short term
  • change is only seen through the eyes of an election cycle or a human lifetime
  • acceptance of our inherited circumstances
  • pervasive advertising and marketing efforts aimed at increasing consumption
  • a distancing from the environmental consequences of our actions (e.g. our waste does not pile up in the back yard)
  • the complexity of ecosystems making it difficult for scientists to give clear and unequivocal advice to political decision-makers, hence the recommendation to adopt the Precautionary Principle (in difficult cases take the cautious approach)
  • we do not (as yet) pay for nature as we would for other goods and services and are therefore inclined to assume it has little value
  • we are not prepared to change our behaviour if it takes us out of our comfort zone (even in the face of overwhelming scientific evidence)
  • we feel that our own individual action is insignificant and unimportant.

Working together

Achieving a sustainability transition is more to do with cultural and behavioural change than providing more information so sustainability must embrace not only environmental science and engineering, but also the social sciences, humanities and business.

Sustainability is the process that can take humanity through the cultural and behavioural change needed to protect our scientific, political, social, and economic systems into the future. [75]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ a b Our Common Future, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987. Published as Annex to General Assembly document A/42/427, Development and International Co-operation: Environment August 2, 1987. Retrieved: 2008-07-24
  2. ↑ http://www.npg.org/forum_series/sus_econ_91.htm Essay on a Sustainable Economy by Donald Mann
  3. ↑ http://www.openexchange.org/archives/JAS04/capra.html Fridtjof Capra speaks of the ability of nature to sustain life and how we must come to study and understand it in order to be able to build sustainable communities
  4. ↑ http://www.reo.gov/general/definitions_r-s.htm definition of sustainability by the Regional Ecosystem Office
  5. ↑ Meadows, D.H., & D.L., Randers, J., & Behrens III, W.W. 1972. The Limits to Growth. Universe Books, New York.
  6. ↑ a b c World Wildlife Fund 2006. Living Planet Report 2006.
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment web site ? the full range of reports are available here.
  8. ↑ An updated version entitled Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living (IUCN/WWF, 1991) was published in 1991.
  9. ↑ http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm World Charter for Nature
  10. ↑ United Nations. 1987. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987. Retrieved: 2008-07-24
  11. ↑ The Commission on Sustainable Development is the main implementation and action arm of the United Nations. Publications, news and information about sustainable development, by topic, is available on the Commission's web site at http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/
  12. ↑ http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=800Cities for Climate Protection
  13. ↑ United Nations Development Program. 2002. Human development report 2002. United Nations Development Program, New York.
  14. ↑ Blewitt, J. 2008. Understanding Sustainable Development. Earthscan, London.
  15. ↑ Beckers et al., in SCOPE-ASI background paper, 2004.
  16. ↑ Determining what is truly sustainable is often an extremely complex problem needing extensive sustainability accounting: the expressions ?more sustainable? and ?less sustainable? generally give a a more realistic impression
  17. ↑ Stanners et al. 2006. Frameworks for policy integration indicators, for sustainable development, and for evaluating complex scientific evidence. In: Hak, T. et al. Assessing Sustainability Indicators, SCOPE 67. Island Press, London.
  18. ↑ the three pillars are not universally accepted: to these is sometimes added a fourth "institution" pillar, and indigenous peoples at UN summits have also advocated a "culture pillar"; the society pillar is sometimes replaced with "community".
  19. ↑ Hamilton, C. 2003. Growth Fetish. Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest.
  20. ↑ Daly, H.E., 1996. Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Beacon Press, Boston.
  21. ↑ Arrow, K., Bolin, B., Costanza, R., Dasgupta, P., Folke, C., Holling, C. S., Jansson, N.-O., Levin, S., Maler, K.-G., Perrings, C., and Pimental, D., 1995. Economic Growth, Carrying Capacity, and the Environment. Science 268: 520-521.
  22. ↑ Kates, R.W. & Parris, T.M. 2003. Long-term trends and a sustainability transition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 100(4): 8062-8067.
  23. ↑ http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment??, see Conceptual Framework
  24. ↑ a b Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Board. 2003. Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment. Island Press, London
  25. ↑ Schaltegger,S., Bennett, M. & Burritt, R. (eds) 2006. Sustainability Accounting and Reporting. Springer. ISBN 978-1-402-04973-6
  26. ↑ Hak, T., Moldan, B. & Dahl, A.L. 2007. SCOPE 67. Sustainability Indicators. Island Press, London. ISBN 978-1-597-26131-9
  27. ↑ a b c http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, see Conceptual Framework
  28. ↑ Smil, V 2000. Cycles of Life. Scientific American Library, New York.
  29. ↑ a b Cross, R. & Spencer, R.D. 2009. Sustainable Gardens. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood. ISBN 978-0-643-09422-2.
  30. ↑ http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter9.pdf Hegerl, G.C. et al. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
  31. ↑ http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg1.htm IPCC. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
  32. ↑ World Resources Institute 1998. World resources 1998-1999. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
  33. ↑ United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 2006 Global forest resources assessment 2005: progress towards sustainable forest management. Forestry paper 147. FAO, Rome.
  34. ↑ IPCC, 2006. IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse inventories, vol.4, agriculture, forestry, and other land uses. Institute for global environment strategies, Japan.
  35. ↑ http://faostat.fao.org/Portals/_Faostat/documents/pdf/world.pdf Food and Agriculture Association
  36. ↑ Imhoff, M.L. et al. (2004). Global patterns in human consumption of net primary production. ??Nature?? 429: 870-873.
  37. ↑ Tudge, C. 2004. So Shall We Reap. Penguin Books, London.
  38. ↑ Wilson, E.O. 2002. The future of life. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-45078-5
  39. ↑ Leakey, R. & Lewin, R. 1995. The sixth extinction: patterns of life and the future of humankind. Bantam Dell Publishing Group. ISBN 0-385-46809-1
  40. ↑ Randall, R.P. 2002. A global compendium of weeds. R.G. & F.J. Richardson, Meredith, Victoria.
  41. ↑ Ehrlich, P.R. & Holden, J.P. 1974. Human Population and the global environment. American Scientist 62(3): 282-292.
  42. ↑ see Goudie, A. 2006. The human impact on the natural environment. 6th edn. Blackwell, Oxford.
  43. ↑ Clark, D. 2006. A Rough Guide to Ethical Living. Penguin, London
  44. ↑ Brower, M. & Leon, W. 1999. The Consumer's Guide to Effective Environmental Choices. Three Rivers Press, New York.
  45. ↑ Daly H. 1996. Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-4709-0.
  46. ↑ Hartwick, John M. 1977. Intergenerational Equity and the Investment of Rents from Exhaustible Resources. American Economic Review 67: 972-74.
  47. ↑ http://www.ipcc.ch IPCC 2007. Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Summary for policymakers
  48. ↑ http://unfccc.int United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
  49. ↑ Goodall, C. 2007. How to Live a Low-carbon Life. Earthscan, London.
  50. ↑ a b http://www.gwsp.org/downloads/govworkshop/Hoekstra.pdf Hoekstra, A.Y. 2006. The Global Dimension of Water Governance: Nine Reasons for Global Arrangements in Order to Cope with Local Problems. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 20 UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.
  51. ↑ a b
  52. ↑ a b http://www.vitalgraphics.net Bournay, E. et al. 2006. Vital waste graphics 2. The Basel Convention, UNEP, GRID-Arendal. ISBN 82 7701 042 7
  53. ↑ Fuad-Luke, A. 2006. The Eco-design Handbook. Thames & Hudson, London. ISBN 978-0-500-28521-3
  54. ↑ Brower, M. & Leon, W. 1999. The consumer's guide to effective environmental choices: practical advice from the Union of Concerned Scientists. Three Rivers Press, New York. ISBN 0 609 80281 X
  55. ↑ Mason, J. & Singer, P. 2006. The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter. Random House, London
  56. ↑ http://www.sustainability.dpc.wa.gov.au/CaseStudies/permaculture/Permaculture.htm Newman, L. 2002, Permaculture: Designing For A Sustainable Future, sustainability case study, Department of the Premier and Cabinet, Perth, viewed 15 August 2002
  57. ↑ Hawken, P, Lovins, A.B. & L.H. 1999. Natural capitalism: creating the next industrial revolution. Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, USA
  58. ↑ Nemetz, P.N. 2003. Basic concepts of sustainable development for business students. Journal of International Business Education vol. 1 no. 1.
  59. ↑ Hardin, G. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/162/3859/1243 The Tragedy of the Commons. Science 162(3859) (December 13, 1968), pp. 1243-1248. Also available here and here.
  60. ↑ National Research Council. 1999. Our common journey. National Academic Press, Washington.
  61. ↑ see Nemetz, P.N. 2003. Basic concepts of sustainable development for business students. Journal of International Business Education 1:1
  62. ↑ Diamond, J. 1997. Guns, germs and steel: the fates of human societies. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-06131-0
  63. ↑ Diamond, J. 2005. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking Books. ISBN 1-586-63863-7.
  64. ↑ Daly H. 1996. Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Beacon Press, Boston. ISBN 0-8070-4709-0
  65. ↑ http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1231331100 Kates, R.W. & Parriss, T.M. 2003. Long term trends and a sustainability transition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA. 100(14): 8062-8067.
  66. ↑ http://bookstore.ellibs.com Billon, P. (ed.) 2005. The Geopolitics of Resource Wars. Ebook.
  67. ↑ http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2007. World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision, Highlights, Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.202.
  68. ↑ Lutz, W., Sanderson, W.C., Scherbov, S. 2004. The End of World Population Growth in the 21st Century .... Earthscan, London. ISBN:1844070891.
  69. ↑ http://atlas.aaas.org/index.php?part=1&sec=onotesAAAS Atlas of population & environment
  70. ↑ http://http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20398986~menuPK:64133163~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html see World Bank Statistics
  71. ↑ Blewitt, J. 2008. Understanding Sustainable Development. Earthscan, London.
  72. ↑ [assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report.pdf]World Wildlife Fund 2006. Living Planet Report 2006.
  73. ↑ Cohen, J.E. 2006. Human Population: the Next Half Century. In Kennedy, D. (ed.) State of the Planet 2006-2007. AAAS, Island Press, London.
  74. ↑ Macy, J. & Young Brown, M. 1998. Coming Back to Life: Practices to Reconect Our Lives, Our World. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island.
  75. ↑ http://learningforsustainability.net/ learning for sustainability

References

Further reading

  • Allen, P. (ed) 1993. Food for the Future: Conditions and Contradictions of Sustainability. ISBN 0-471-58082-1.
  • AtKisson, A. 1999. Believing Cassandra, An Optimist looks at a Pessimist?s World, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT.
  • Bartlett, A. 1998. Reflections on Sustainability, Population Growth, and the Environment?Revisited revised version (January 1998) paper first published in Population & Environment 16(1):5-35.
  • Benyus, J. 1997. Biomimicry: Innovations Inspired by Nature, William Morrow, New York.
  • Blackburn, W.R. 2007. The Sustainability handbook. Earthscan, London. ISBN 978-1-844-07495-2
  • Blewitt, J. 2008. Understanding Sustainable Development. Earthscan, London. ISBN 978-1-844-07454-9.
  • Bookchin, M. 2005. The Ecology of Freedom: the Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy. AK Press, Oakland, CA.
  • Brown, M.T. and Ulgiati, S 1999. Emergy Evaluation of Natural Capital and Biosphere Services AMBIO 28(6).
  • Brundtland, G.H. (ed.), 1987. Our common future: The World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Costanza, R., Graumlich, L.J. & Steffen, W. (eds), 2007. Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated History and Future of People on Earth. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03366-4.
  • Cross, R. & Spencer, R.D. 2009. Sustainable Gardens. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood. ISBN 978-0-643-09422-2.
  • Dalal-Clayton, B. 1993. Modified Eia And Indicators Of Sustainability: First Steps Towards Sustainability Analysis, Environmental Planning Issues No.1, International Institute For Environment And Development, Environmental Planning Group.
  • Daly H., 1996. Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Beacon Press, Boston. ISBN 0-8070-4709-0
  • Daly H. and J. Cobb., 1989. For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future. Beacon Press, Boston. ISBN 0-8070-4705-8 Review
  • Dean, J. W. 2006. Conservatives Without Conscience. Viking Penguin, New York.
  • Ekins, P. (ed). 1986. The Living Economy. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
  • Hargroves, K. & Smith, M. (eds.) 2005. The Natural Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation and Governance in the 21st Century. ISBN 1-84407-121-9, 525 pages. Earthscan/James&James. (See the books online companion at www.thenaturaladvantage.info)
  • Hawken, Paul, Lovins, Amory and Lovins, L. H. 1999. Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, Earthscan, London.
  • International Institute for Sustainable Development 1996. Global Tomorrow Coalition Sustainable Development Tool Kit: A Sample Policy Framework, Chapter 4.
  • Jarzombek, M. Sustainability?Architecture: between Fuzzy Systems and Wicked Problems. Blueprints 21(1):6-9.
  • Lane, R. E. 1991. The Market Experience. Cambridge University Press, New York.
  • Marks, N., Simms, A., Thompson, S., and Abdallah, S. 2006. The (Un)happy Planet Index. New Economics Foundation, London. http://www.neweconomics.org
  • McDonough, W. & Braungart, M. 2002. Cradle to Cradle. North Point Press.
  • Nelson, E. H. 1986. New Values and Attitudes Throughout Europe. Taylor-Nelson, Epsom, England.
  • Raskin, P., Banuri, T., Gallopin, G., Gutman, P., Hammond, A., Kates, R., and Swart, R. 2002.