Star of Bethlehem

The Star of Bethlehem, also called the Christmas Star,^[1] is a star in Christian tradition that revealed the birth of Jesus to the magi (or "wise men") and later led them to Bethlehem. According to the Gospel of Matthew,^[2] the magi were men "from the east" who were inspired by the appearance of the star to travel to Jerusalem in search of a king of the Jews.^[3] There they met King Herod of Judea, who advised them that the child they sought was in Bethlehem, a nearby village. While the magi were on their way to Bethlehem, the star appeared again. Following the star, it stopped this time above the place where Jesus was born. The magi found Jesus with his mother, paid him homage, worshipped him and gave gifts. They then returned to their "own country".^[4]

Christians generally regard the star as a miraculous sign given by God to mark the birth of the Christ (or Messiah). Some theologians claimed that the star fulfilled a prophecy, known as the Star Prophecy. In modern times, astronomers have proposed various explanations for the star. A nova, a planet, a comet, an occultation, and a conjunction (massing of planets) have all been suggested. The star has also been interpreted as an astrological event.

Many scholars question the historicity of the story, regarding the star as a pious fiction created by the author of the Gospel of Matthew. ^[5]

The subject is a favorite at planetarium shows during the Christmas season,^[6] although the Biblical account suggests that the visit of the magi took place at least several months after Jesus was born.^[7] The visit is traditionally celebrated on Epiphany (January 6) in Western Christianity^[8] and on Christmas (December 25) in Eastern Christianity.

Biblical narrative

The Gospel of Matthew states that magi (Greek magoi, usually translated as "wise men" but in this context probably meaning "astronomer" or "astrologer"^[9]) arrived at the court of Herod in Jerusalem and told the king of a star which signified the birth of the King of the Jews:

Herod was "troubled" when the magi told him that a "king of the Jews" had been born because that was one of his own titles, conferred by the Roman Senate.^[11] He understood this phrase to refer to the Messiah, a leader of the Jewish people whose coming was foretold in Old Testament prophecy. So he asked his advisors where the Messiah would be born.^[12] They answered Bethlehem, birthplace of King David, and quoted the prophet Micah.^[13] The king passed this information along to the magi.^[14]

Matthew's account suggests that the magi knew from the star that the "king of the Jews" had already been born even before they arrived in Jerusalem. The magi presented Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.^[2] In a dream, the magi were warned not to return to Jerusalem, so they "left for their own country by another road".^[16] When Herod realized that he had been tricked, he ordered the execution of all male children in Bethlehem age 2 and under, based on the information the magi had given him concerning the time the star first appeared.^[17] Joseph, warned in a dream, takes his family to Egypt for their safety.^[18] After Herod dies, God calls Joseph and his family back from Egypt, which is said to fulfill the prophecy, "Out of Egypt I called My Son."^[19]

Interpretations and explanations

Fulfillment of prophecy

The ancients believed that astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events. Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people, including the Hebrew patriarchs, as well as Greek and Roman heroes.^[20] Although not referred to by Matthew, the Star Prophecy in the Book of Numbers was well-known at the time that that the Gospels were written.^[21] It was, for example, cited by Josephus, who believed it referred to Emperor Vespasian.^[22] Origen, one of the most influential early Christian theologians, connected this prophecy with the Star of Bethlehem:

The magi may have decided to travel to Jerusalem when they "conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star, had actually come into the world", according to Origen.^[25]

The magi are sometimes called "kings" because of the belief that they fulfill a prophecy by Isaiah concerning a journey to Jerusalem by gentile kings.^[26] In the Septuagint, the Greek translation Matthew probably used, this prophecy mentions gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, the same gifts the magi presented to Jesus.^[27] In the Book of Daniel, the magi (Aramaic mag, Septuagint magoi) are portrayed as an association of scholars in Babylon.^[28] Daniel, who in the book is selected chief magus, was considered "one of the greatest prophets" by the Jews, according to Josephus.^[29]

While Origen argued for a naturalistic explanation, John Chrysostom viewed the star as purely miraculous: "How then, tell me, did the star point out a spot so confined, just the space of a manger and shed, unless it left that height and came down, and stood over the very head of the young child? And at this the evangelist was hinting when he said, Lo, the star went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was."^[30]

Astronomical object

The magi told Herod that they saw the star "at its rising",^[31] which suggests that they observed an astronomical object.

In 1614, German astronomer Johannes Kepler determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn occurred in the year 7 BC.^[6] Although conjunctions were important in astrology, Kepler was not thinking in astrological terms. He argued that a planetary conjunction could create a nova, which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem.^[6] Modern calculations show that there was always a significant gap between the two planets, so these conjunctions were not visually impressive. An ancient almanac has been found in Babylon which covers the events of this period, but it makes no specific reference to the conjunctions.^[32]^[33]

Chinese and Korean stargazers observed an object thought to be a nova or a comet around 5 BC.^[32] This object was observed for over seventy days with no movement recorded.^[32] Ancient writers described comets as "hanging over" specific cities, just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have "stood over" the "place" where Jesus was (presumably the town of Bethlehem).^[34] This phrase was not used to describe other astronomical objects, so perhaps the tail of a comet was thought to point to a specific terrestrial location.

Another Star of Bethlehem candidate is Uranus, which passed close to Saturn in 9 BC and Venus in 6 BC. This is unlikely because Uranus moves very slowly and is only dimly visible.^[35]

A recent hypothesis states that the star of Bethlehem was a supernova or hypernova occurring in the nearby Andromeda Galaxy. Although supernovae have been detected in Andromeda, it is extremely difficult to detect a supernova remnant in another galaxy, let alone obtain an accurate date of when it occurred.^[36]

Astrological event

The use of the phrase "king of the Jews" by the magi has led many writers to link the Star of Bethlehem to astrology. In Hellenistic astrology, Jupiter was the king planet and Regulus (in the constellation Leo) was the king star.^[37] As they traveled from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, the star "went before" the magi and then "stood over" the place where Jesus was. In astrological interpretations, these phrases are said to refer to retrograde motion and to stationing, i.e., Jupiter appeared to reverse course for a time, then stopped, and finally resumed its normal progression^[38]

In 3?2 BC, there was a series of seven conjunctions, including three between Jupiter and Regulus and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and Venus near Regulus on June 17, 2 BC.^[37] "The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe-inspiring event", according to an influential paper by Roger Sinnott.^[39]

Astronomer Michael Molnar has proposed a link between a double occultation of Jupiter by the moon in 6 BC in Aries and the Star of Bethlehem, particularly the second occultation on April 17.^[40] This event was quite close to the sun and would have been difficult to observe, even with a small telescope,^[41] which had not yet been invented. Occultations of planets by the moon are quite common, but Firmicus Maternus, an astrologer to Roman Emperor Constantine, wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king.^[40]^[42] "When the royal star of Zeus, the planet Jupiter, was in the east this was the most powerful time to confer kingships. Furthermore, the Sun was in Aries where it is exalted. And the Moon was in very close conjunction with Jupiter in Aries", Molnar wrote.^[40] This set of planetary conditions reoccurs every sixty years.^[40]

Historical fiction

Instead of focusing on the events around the time of the birth of Jesus, the historical fiction approach considers what sources were available to Matthew when he composed his gospel (AD 85?90) and what events might have influenced his thinking. Several aspects of the story give reason to doubt that an actual historical event is being portrayed.^[43] There are no records of failed magi searches, so the magi seem to have witnessed an event that allowed them to determine with certainty that a king had been born.^[34] But a nova, a comet, or a conjunction would not qualify as a unique event. Moreover, several of the astronomical explanations that have been put forward are equally plausible as birth signifiers.^[34] The magi traveled a great distance, but when they arrive in Bethlehem they merely gave some gifts. They served the storyteller's purpose of glorifying Jesus, but their motives remain obscure.

Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the magi. The Gospel of Mark, considered by modern text scholars to be the oldest of the Gospels,^[44] does not include a nativity narrative or any hint that Jesus was born in Bethlehem.^[45] The author of the Gospel of John also appears to be unaware of the Bethlehem nativity narratives.^[46] The Gospels often described Jesus as "of Nazareth,"^[47] but never as "of Bethlehem". Many scholars have concluded that Jesus was probably born in Nazareth and that the nativity narratives are influenced by the desire of the Gospel writers to portray his birth as a fulfillment a prophecy in the Book of Micah concerning a Bethlehem birth.^[48]

Matthew's description of the miracles and portents attending the birth of Jesus can be compared to stories concerning the birth of Augustus (63 BC), the first Roman emperor.^[49] Linking a birth to the first appearance of a star was consistent with the popular belief each person's life was linked to a particular star.^[50] Magi and astronomical events were linked in the public mind by the visit to Rome of a delegation of magi at the time of a spectacular appearance of Halley's Comet in AD 66.^[34] This delegation was led by King Tiridates of Armenia, who came seeking confirmation of his title from Emperor Nero. Ancient historian Dio Cassius wrote that, "The King did not return by the route he had following in coming,"^[34] a line echoed in Matthew's account.^[51]

Determining the year Jesus was born

Which event is most plausible as an explanation of the Star of Bethlehem depends on which year is accepted as the year Jesus was born. Matthew wrote that Jesus was born when Herod was king. According to Josephus, Herod died shortly after a lunar eclipse. This is usually identified as the eclipse of March 13, 4 BC. Coins issued by Herod's successors show that they dated their reigns as beginning in 4 BC.^[52]

According to Matthew's account, Jesus must have been born sometime between the first appearance of the Star of Bethlehem and the time the magi arrived in Herod's court. As Herod ordered the execution of boys age 2 and under, the star must have made its first appearance within the previous two years. There was, however, no Roman census in 6?4 BC. The Census of Quirinius took place in 6?7 AD. The census Luke referred to could have been another event such as a mass oath taking that took place when Augustus was given the title "father of the nation" (3?2 BC).^[6] Other scholars, however, argue that Luke was simply mistaken.^[53]

Luke wrote that Jesus was "about thirty" when he began his ministry in AD 29,^[54] which yields a birth year of around 3?2 BC.^[55] John estimated the age of Jesus as "not yet fifty."^[56]