Samuel^[1] (also Samuil representing , ) was the Emperor (Tsar) of the First Bulgarian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. From 980^[2] to 997, he was a general for Roman I of Bulgaria, the second surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria, and co-ruled with him, as Roman bestowed him command of the army and the real authority.^[3] Samuel struggled to preserve his country's independence from the Byzantine Empire. His rule was characterized by constant warfare against the Byzantines and their similarly ambitious ruler Basil II.

In his early years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns on their territory.^[4] In the late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the Serb principality of Duklja^[5] and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary. But from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire against the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of a heart attack on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophe at Kleidion, and Bulgaria was fully subjugated by Basil II four years later.^[6]

Samuel was considered "invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength".^[7][8] Similar comment was made even in Constantinople, where John Kyriotes Geometres penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the Bulgarian Emperor and a comet which appeared in 989.^[9][10]

During Samuel's reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the Balkans (except Thrace) and southern Greece. He moved the capital from Skopje to Ohrid^[11][4], which had been the cultural and military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since Boris I's rule.^[12] He also made the city the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. Although Samuel's reign brought the end of the First Bulgarian Empire, he is regarded as a heroic ruler in Bulgaria.^[13][14]

The Cometopuli

Samuel was the fourth^[15] and youngest son of Comita Nikola, most likely Count of Sredets (Sofia)^[16] and the Armenian^[17] princess^[18] Ripsimia.^[19] His father, who had close ties to the royal court in Preslav^[20], died in 970. At that time there was no Emperor in Preslav as Peter I had died on 30 January 970 and his sons Boris and Roman were in Constantinople.^[21]

In the same year^[22] Samuel and his three brothers David, Moses and Aaron rebelled against John I Tzimisces's campaign that aimed to "liberate" Bulgaria from the Kievan Rus', which they saw as an attempt by Byzantium to seize power in Bulgaria.^[23] Indeed the following year, the Byzantines deceived^[24] Boris II and forced him to abdicate in Constantinople.^[25] Although Tzimisces announced the annexation^[26] of Bulgaria, he only controlled the northeastern half of the country, including the capital Preslav and the seat of patriarchate Drastar (Silistra).^[27][28] The lands west of the Iskar River^[29][30] remained under the control of the four brothers, who were called Cometopuli (Kometopouloi, i.e., "the sons of the Count") in Byzantine sources.^[31] In 973, the Cometopuli sent envoys to the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I in Quedlinburg in an attempt to secure the protection of their lands.^[32]

The brothers ruled together in a tetrarchy.^[33] David ruled the southernmost regions and led the defense of one of the most dangerous border areas, around Thessaloniki and Thessaly.^[33] The centres of his possessions were Prespa and Kastoria. Moses ruled from Strumitsa,^[33] which would be a base for attacks on the Aegean coast and Serres. Aaron ruled from Sredets,^[33] and was to defend the main road from Adrianople to Belgrade, and to attack Thrace. Samuel ruled northwestern Bulgaria from the strong fortress of Vidin. He was also to organize the liberation of the conquered areas to the east and of Preslav.^[34] Some records suggest that David played a major role in this tumultuous period of Bulgarian history.^[35]

The Byzantines seize the capital Preslav.

Even before the fall of Preslav, the Bulgarians defeated Byzantium's Asian army, led by the eunuch Peter, on the outskirts of Plovdiv in 970.^[36] From 971 to 975, there were many skirmishes and minor battles, and the Bulgarian detachments harassed the Byzantine possessions in the Balkans.^[37] After John I Tzimiskes died on 11 January 976, the Cometopuli launched an assault along the whole border. But within the first weeks David was killed by Vlach vagrants and Moses was fatally injured by a stone during the siege of Serres.^[38]Moses died in 986. ^[39]

Their actions to the south detained many Byzantine troops and eased Samuel's liberation of northeastern Bulgaria; the Byzantine commander was defeated and retreated to Crimea.^[40][41] Any Bulgarian nobles and officials who had not opposed the Byzantine conquest of the region were executed, and the war continued north of the Danube until the enemy was scattered and Bulgarian rule was restored.^[42]

Death of Aaron and Samuel's ascent to power

After its serious defeats in the Balkans, the Byzantine Empire descended into civil war. The commander of the Asian army, Bardas Scleros, rebelled in Asia Minor and sent troops under his son Romanus in Thrace to besiege Constantinople. The new Emperor Basil II did not have enough manpower to fight both the Bulgarians and the rebels and resorted to treason, conspiracy and complicated diplomatic plots.^[43]

During the civil wars in the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians not only regained their positions on the Balkans, but advanced deep into enemy territory.

Basil II was making many promises to the Bulgarians and Scleros to divert them from allying against him.^[44] Aaron, the eldest living Comitopulus, was tempted by an alliance with the Byzantines and the opportunity to seize power in Bulgaria for himself. He held land in Thrace, where the Byzantines could threaten it. Basil reached an agreement with Aaron, who asked to marry Basil's sister to seal it. But Basil instead sent the wife of one of his officials with the bishop of Sebaste. The deceit was uncovered and the bishop was killed.^[45]

Nonetheless, negotiations proceeded and concluded in a peace agreement. The historian Scylitzes wrote that Aaron wanted sole power and "sympathized with the Romans".^[46] Samuel learned of the conspiracy and conflict between the two brothers was inevitable. The quarrel broke out in the vicinity of Dupnitsa on 14 June, 976 and ended with the annihilation of Aaron's family. Only his son, Ivan Vladislav, survived because Samuil's son Gavril Radomir pleaded on his behalf.^[47] Now, practically all power and authority in the state was with Samuel, and the danger of internal conflict was eliminated.

However, another theory suggests that Aaron participated in the battle of the Gates of Trajan which took place ten years later. According to that theory Aaron was killed on 14 June 987 or 988.^[48][49]

Co-rule with Roman

The Byzantine cavalry fighting in northern Bulgaria.

Roman was taken to Vidin, where he was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria.^[54] Samuel became his first assistant and general and together they gathered an army and fought the Byzantines.^[55] During his captivity, Roman had been castrated on the orders of John I Tzimiskes so that he would not have heirs. Thus, his first assistant, Samuel, was certain to eventually succeed Roman. The new emperor entrusted Samuel with state affairs and became occupied with the church and religion.^[56]

As the main efforts of Basil II were concentrated against the rebel Skleros, Samuel's armies easily attacked all European possessions of the Byzantine Empire. He invaded not only Thrace and the area of Thessaloniki, but also Thessaly, Hellas and Peloponnese. Many Byzantine fortresses fell under Bulgarian rule.^[57] Samuel wanted to seize the important fortress of Larissa, which controlled the key routes to Thessaly. From 977 to 983, the area around the town was blocked. After starvation forced the Byzantines to surrender^[11], the population of the town was deported to the interior of Bulgaria and the males were forced to enlist in the Bulgarian army.^[58] Although Basil II sent forces to the region, they were defeated, and the conquest of Thessaly marked the loss of the last Byzantine stronghold in that part of the peninsula. With this victory, Bulgaria had gained influence over the southwestern Balkans. From Larissa, Samuel took the relics of St Achillios, which were laid in a specially built church of the same name on an island in Lake Prespa.^[59][60][61]

The Bulgarians defeat the Byzantines in the battle of Thessaloniki.

The major successes in the west raised justifiable fears in Constantinople, and after serious preparations, Basil II launched a campaign in the very centre of the Bulgarian Empire^[62] to distract Samuel from southern Greece.^[63][64] The Byzantine army passed through the mountains around Ihtiman and besieged Sofia in 986. For 20 days, the Byzantine assaults proved fruitless and even disastrous: several times, the Bulgarians came out of the city, slaughtered many enemy soldiers and captured draught animals and horses. Eventually, the Bulgarian troops burned the siege equipment of the invaders. Basil II withdrew to Thrace, but on 17 August 986,^[65] while passing through the mountains, the Byzantine army was thoroughly routed at the Trajan's Gate Pass. This was a significant blow for Basil,^[66][67] who was one of the few to return to Constantinople; his personal treasure was captured by the victors.^[68][69]

After the defeat, the Byzantine Empire descended into a civil war after the rebellion of Bardas Phocas.^[70][71][72] Samuil seized the opportunity and began to exert pressure on Thessaloniki.^[73][74] Basil II sent a large army to the town and appointed a new governor, Gregorios Taronites,^[75] but he was powerless to stop the Bulgarian advance. By 989, the Bulgarian troops had penetrated deep into Byzantine territory^[76] and seized many fortresses, including such important cities as Veria and Servia. In the south, the Bulgarians marched throughout Epirus and in the west they seized the area of modern Durrës on the Adriatic Sea.^[77][78][79]

The defeat at Spercheios.

In 989, Phocas was killed and his followers surrendered, and the following year Basil II reached an agreement with Skleros.^[80] The Byzantines focused their attention on Bulgaria,^[81] and in 991 counter-attacked.^[82][83] The Bulgarian army was defeated and Roman was captured while Samuel managed to escape.^[84] The Byzantines conquered some areas; but in 995, the Arabs invaded Asia Minor and Basil II was forced to move many of his troops to combat this new threat. Samuil quickly regained the lost lands and advanced south. In 996, he defeated the Byzantines in the battle of Thessaloniki. During the battle, Thessaloniki's governor, Gregorios, perished and his son Ashot was captured.^[85] Inspired, the Bulgarians continued south. They marched through Thessaly, overcame the defensive wall at Thermopylae and entered the Peloponnese, devastating everything on their way.^[86]

The Byzantines recovered and an army under Nikephorus Uranos was sent after the Bulgarians. The two armies met near the flooded river of Spercheios. The Byzantines found a place to ford, and on 19 July 996, they surprised the unprepared Bulgarian army and routed it in the battle of Spercheios.^[87] Samuel's arm was wounded and he barely escaped captivity; he and his son allegedly pretended to be dead.^[88] After nightfall they headed for Bulgaria and walked home. Research of Samuel's grave suggests that the bone in his arm healed at an angle of 140° but remained crippled.^[89]

Emperor

In 997, Roman died in captivity in Constantinople, ending the line of rulers started by Krum. Because of the war with Byzantium, it was dangerous to leave the throne vacant for long, and Samuel was chosen as the new Emperor of Bulgaria because he had the closest relations to the deceased emperor and was Roman's long-standing military commander.^[90] The presbyter of Duklja also marked the event: "By that time among the Bulgarian people rose one Samuel, who proclaimed himself Emperor. He led a long war against the Byzantines and expelled them from the whole territory of Bulgaria, so that the Byzantines did not dare to approach it."^[91] Constantinople would not recognize the new emperor, as for the Byzantines Boris II's abdication symbolized the official end of Bulgaria and Samuel was considered a rebel. Instead Samuel sought recognition from the Pope, which would be a serious blow to the position of the Byzantines in the Balkans and would lessen the influence of the Patriarch of Constantinople thereby benefiting both Rome and Bulgaria. Samuil possibly received his imperial crown from Pope Gregory V.^[92]

War against Serbs and Croats

In 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against the Serbian principality of Duklja to prevent an alliance between Prince Jovan Vladimir and the Byzantines. When the Bulgarian troops reached Duklja, the Serbian prince and his people withdrew to the mountains. Samuel left part of the army at the foot of the mountains and led the remaining soldiers to besiege the Ulcinj coastal fortress. In an effort to avoid bloodshed he asked Jovan Vladimir to surrender. After the prince refused, some Serb nobles offered their services to the Bulgarians and, when it became clear that further resistance was fruitless, the Serbs surrendered. Jovan Vladimir was exiled to Samuel's palaces in Prespa.^[93]

The wedding of Ashot and Samuil's daughter Miroslava.

Samuel's daughter Theodora Kosara fell in love with the captive Jovan Vladimir. The couple married after gaining Samuil's approval, and Jovan returned to his lands as a Bulgarian official along with his uncle Dragomir, whom Samuel trusted.^[94] Meanwhile, Princess Miroslava fell in love with the Byzantine noble captive Ashot and threatened to commit suicide if she was not allowed to marry him. Samuel conceded and appointed Ashot as governor of the Drach Province.^[95] Samuel also gained an alliance with the Kingdom of Hungary when his eldest son and heir, Gavril Radomir, married the daughter of the Hungarian Ruling Prince Géza.^[96]

Advance of the Byzantines

The beginning of the new millennium saw a change in Byzantine-Bulgarian relations.^[97] Basil II had amassed an army larger and stronger than that of the Bulgarians. Determined to definitively conquer Bulgaria, he moved much of the battle-seasoned war potential from the eastern campaigns against the Arabs to the Balkans^[98][99] and Samuel was forced to defend rather than attack.^[100]

In 1001, Basil II sent a large army under the patrician Theodorokanos and Nicephorus Xiphias to the north of the Balkan Mountains to seize the main Bulgarian fortress in the area. The Byzantine troops seized Preslav and Pliska,^[101] putting north-eastern Bulgaria under Byzantine rule for a second time. The following year, they struck in the opposite direction, marching through Thessaloniki to tear off Thessaly and the southernmost parts of the Bulgarian Empire. Although the Bulgarian commander of the fortress of Veroia, Dobromir, was married to one of Samuel's nieces, he voluntarily surrendered the fort and joined the Byzantines.^[102] The Byzantines also captured the fortress of Kolidron without a fight, but its commander Dimitar Tihon managed to retreat with his soldiers and join Samuel.^[103] The next town, Servia, did not fall so easily. Its governor Nikulitsa organized the defenders well. They fought bravely until the Byzantines penetrated the walls and forced them to surrender.^[104] Nikulitsa was taken to Constantinople and given the high court title of patricius, but he soon escaped and joined the Bulgarians. He tried to retake Servia, but the siege was unsuccessful and he was captured again and imprisoned.^[105]

Meanwhile, Basil II's campaign seized many towns in Thessaly. He forced the Bulgarian population of the conquered areas to resettle in the Voleron area between the Mesta and Maritsa rivers. Edessa resisted for weeks but after a long siege was conquered. The population was moved to Voleron and its governor Dragshan was taken to Thessaloniki, where he was betrothed to the daughter of a local noble. Unwilling to be married to an enemy, Dragshan three times tried to flee to Bulgaria and was eventually executed.^[106]

War with Hungary

Map of Bulgaria in its largest extension during Samuel's reign.^[32]

Although Gavril Radomir's marriage to the daughter of the Hungarian ruler had established friendly relation between the two strongest states in the Danube area, the relationship deteriorated after Géza's death. The Bulgarians supported Gyula and Koppány as rulers instead of Géza's Stephen I. As a result of the conflict, the marriage between Gavril Radomir and the Hungarian princess was dissolved. The Hungarians then attacked Ahtum, who had directly backed the pretenders for the Hungarian crown. Stephen I convinced Hanadin, Ahtum's right-hand man, to help in the attack. When the conspiracy was uncovered Hanadin fled and joined the Hungarian forces.^[109] At the same time, a strong Byzantine army besieged Vidin, Ahtum's seat. Although many soldiers were required to participate in the defense of the town, Ahtum was occupied with the war to the north. After several months he died in battle when his troops were defeated by the Hungarians.^[110] As a result of the war, Bulgarian influence to the northwest of the Danube diminished.

Further Byzantine successes

The first decade of the new millennium was abundant in constant bloody battles, sieges and skirmishes. This picture shows a Byzantine victory in that period.

Basil II then decided to return to Constantinople, but, fearing an encounter with the Bulgarian army on the main road to his capital, he used an alternate route. The Byzantines marched south through the Morava valley and reached a key Bulgarian city, Skopje, in 1004. The Bulgarian army was camping on the opposite side of the Vardar River. After finding a ford and crossing the river Basil II attacked and defeated Samuel's unsuspecting army, repeating tactics used in the Battle of Spercheios.^[114] The Byzantines continued east and besieged the fortress of Pernik. Its governor, Krakra, was not seduced by Basil's promises of a noble title and wealth. Krakra defended the fortress and the Byzantines withdrew to Thrace after suffering heavy losses.^[115][116]

In the same year, Samuel undertook a march against Thessaloniki. He ambushed and captured its governor, Ioannes Chaldus,^[37][117] but this success could not compensate for the losses the Bulgarians had suffered in the past four years. The setbacks in the war demoralized some of Samuil's military commanders, especially the captured Byzantine nobles. Samuel's son-in-law Ashot, the governor of Dyrrhachium, made contact with the local Byzantines and the influential Ioannes Chryselios, Samuel's father-in-law. Ashot and his wife boarded one of the enemy ships that beleaguered the town, and fled to Constantinople. Meanwhile Chryselios surrendered Dyrrhachium to the Byzantine chief Eustathios Daphnomeles in 1005, securing the title of patricius for his sons.^[118][119]

From 1006 to 1013, neither side had much success and the balance of power remained unchanged. But in 1006–1007, Basil II penetrated deep into Bulgarian territory^[120] and in 1009 Samuel's forces were defeated at Kreta east of Thessaloniki.^[121] Basil launched annual campaigns into Bulgarian territory, devastating everything on his way.^[122] Although there was still no decisive battle, it was clear that the end of the Bulgarian resistance was imminent; the evidence was the fierceness of the military engagements and the constant campaigns of both sides which devastated the Bulgarian and Byzantine lands.^[123][121]

Disaster at Kleidion

The battle of Kleidion.

Meanwhile Samuel sent forces under his general Nestoritsa to attack Thessalonica to distract Basil's attention. Nestoritsa was defeated near the city^[124] by its governor Botaniates who later joined the main Byzantine army near Klyuch.^[125] After several days of trying to break through the wall, one Byzantine commander, the governor of Plovdiv Nicephorus Xiphias, found a by-pass and on 29 July attacked the Bulgarians from the rear.^[126] Despite the desperate resistance and the personal bravery of Gavril Radomir, the Byzantines overwhelmed the Bulgarian army and captured around 14,000 soldiers.^[127] According to some sources the number was 15,000.^[128] Basil II immediately sent forces under his favourite commander Theophylactus Botaniates to pursue the surviving Bulgarians, but they were defeated after an audacious counter-attack by Gavril Radomir, who personally killed Botaniates.

Then, under order of Basil II the captured men were blinded; one of every 100 men was left with one eye to lead the others home.^[129][130] They were sent back to Samuel, who had a heart attack on seeing the blinded soldiers. He died two days later, on 15 October 1014.^[131] This savagery gave the Byzantine emperor his byname Boulgaroktonos ("Bulgar-slayer" in ). Some historians theorize it was the death of his favourite commander that infuriated Basil II to blind the captured soldiers.^[132]

Aftermath

Themes in the Byzantine Empire under Basil II

Family

Detail form Samuil's garment.

After the fall of Bulgaria, Samuel's descendants assumed important positions in the Byzantine court after they were resettled and given lands in Asia Minor and Armenia. ?ne of his granddaughters, Catherine, became Empress of Byzantium. Another grandchild, Peter II Delyan, tried to restore the Bulgarian Empire after a major uprising in 1040–1041. Two other women of the dynasty became Byzantine Empresses,^[136] while many nobles were strategos and governors of different provinces.

There is also another version about Samuel?s origin. The 11th century historian Stepanos Asoghik wrote that Samuel had only one brother, and they were Armenians from the district Derjan (Armenian land incorporated into the Byzantine Empire). They were sent to fight the Bulgarians in Macedonia but ended up joining them.^[137] This version is supported by the historian Nicholas Adontz who analyzes the events and facts of the century and concludes that Samuel had only one brother, David.^[138] Asoghik's version is also supported by the historian Jordan Ivanov,^[139] and according to Samuil's Inscription he had only one brother called David.

Yahya says that the son of Samuel ? Gabriel (Gavril) was assassinated by the boss of the Bulgarians, son of Aaron, because Aaron belonged to the race that reigned over Bulgaria. Asoghik and Yahya clearly distinguish the race of Samuel from the one of Aaron or the race of the Comitopouli from the royal race. Moses and Aaron are not from the family of the Comitopouli. David and Samuel were of Armenian origin. Moses and Aaron were Armenians from their mother?s side.^[140]Check out:

• Simeon I of Bulgaria had several daughters and four sons:

1.Michael. 2.Peter I of Bulgaria (married to an Armenian Irina (Maria)/ Boris, Roman. 3.Ivan (married to an Armenian in Caesarea/ Moses, Aaron/ John (Ivan) Vladislav. 4.Benjamin (Bajan).

• Comes (comita) Nikola/ David, Samuel/ Gabriel (Gavril Radomir) and several other children.

Grave

The remains of the Basilica of Agios Achillius in Lake Prespa where Samuil's grave was found.

Samuel's grave was found in 1965 by Greek professor Nikolaos Moutsopoulos, on an island in Lake Prespa, in the Church of St Achillios. Samuel had built the church for the relics of the saint of the same name.^[141] The coat of arms of the Comitopuli house, two perched parrots, was embroidered on his funeral garment.

His remains are kept in a secret location in Greece, but according to a recent agreement, they may be returned to Bulgaria and buried in the SS. Forty Martyrs Church in Veliko Tarnovo by April 2007, to rest with the remains of emperors Kaloyan and Michael Shishman.^[142]

The skull was reconstructed to restore the appearance of the 70-year-old Bulgarian ruler. According to the reconstruction he was sharp-faced man, bald-headed with white beard and moustache.^[143]

Nomenclature

Samuel's empire had its heartlands about Ohrid, west and southwest of the earlier centers of the First Bulgarian Empire. Thus the White Russian-Yugoslav scholar George Ostrogorsky distinguished Samuel's Empire sharply from the earlier Bulgarian Empire, as being a "Macedonian kingdom".^[144] Some of his school, such as Anastasijevi?, claimed that Samuel ruled a separate Slavic Empire,^[145] founded as an anti-Bulgarian rebellion of the Comitopuli, not a continuation of the Bulgarian state. This theory is now held only in the Republic of Macedonia; although Pirivatri? rejects it.^[146] The official publications of the Republic even refer to a "Macedonian Slavic" or even only "Macedonian" Empire.^[147]

Legacy

A memorial in Petrich, Bulgaria.

See also

• Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
• Bulgarian-Hungarian Wars
• Medieval Bulgarian Army
• Comitopuli dynasty
• Bitola inscription
• Samuil's Inscription

References

• Fine, John V. A., Jr.. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991 Chapter 6:"Bulgaria after Symeon, 927?1018". pp. 188?200. ISBN 978-0472081493.
• Lang, David Marshal, The Bulgarians : from pagan times to the Ottoman conquest. Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1976. ISBN 0891585303
• Ostrogorsky, George, History of the Byzantine State. tr. (from the German) by Joan Hussey, rev. ed., Rutgers Univ. Press, 1969.
• Pavlov P., Samuil and the Bulgarian epopee (in Bulgarian), Sofia - Veliko Tarnovo, 2002
• Excerpt from the Bulgarian translation.
• Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, 1997, pb. ISBN 0804726302

External links

Footnotes

1. Bulgarian ? can be transliterated a, u, or sometimes â, as in ?????????, balgarski (as below) or bulgarski.

2. The work of Vasil Zlatarski, History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages has three editions. The first edition is from 1927 published in Sofia; the second edition is from 1971 and can be found here in Bulgarian; the third edition is from 1994 published in Sofia, ISBN 954-430-299-9

bs:Samuilo bg:?????? de:Samuil (Bulgarien) fr:Samuel Ier de Bulgarie ko:????? ??? hr:Samuilo id:Samuil dari Bulgaria it:Samuele di Bulgaria mk:?????? (???) nl:Samuel van Bulgarije ja:???? (???????) pl:Samuel Komitopuli ru:?????? (???? ????????) sq:Samoili sk:Samuil cu:??????? sr:??????? (???) sv:Samuil av Bulgarien