Puerto Rican Campaign

Puerto Rican Campaign

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Puerto Rican Campaign

The Puerto Rican Campaign refers to an American military sea and land operation on the island of Puerto Rico during the Spanish?American War. The offensive began on May 12, 1898, when the United States Navy attacked the archipelago's capital, San Juan, and though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a blockade in the city's harbor, San Juan Bay. Two Spanish ships counterattacked on June 22nd, but were unable to break the blockade and lost a destroyer.

The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Nelson A. Miles disembarked of the coast of Guánica. After controlling the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to Coamo, where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. The battle concluded when the allied soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side, and four on the American side. The United States was able to seize control of Fajardo on August 1, but where forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican-Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards the main island's interior. They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo, both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated. A battle in San Germán concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares.

On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. In the subsequent crossfire, confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured, which prompted a retreat order. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Philippines.

Prelude to the Puerto Rican Campaign

Manuel Macías y Casado

Following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor, Cuba, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba. In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 23, 1898, Spain declared war. On April 25, the U.S. Congress declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20.^[1] One of the United States' principal objectives in the Spanish-American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic — Puerto Rico and Cuba — and their possessions in the Pacific — the Philippines and Guam.^[2]

On April 27, U.S. ships, the monitor USS Puritan and the armored cruisers USS New York and USS Cincinnati, bombarded the Spanish fortifications on Matanzas Bay and by July 16, an armistice was signed at the Arbol de La Paz (a large ceiba tree) by U.S. and Spanish forces. The United States then dispatched its armada to Puerto Rico.^[3] Two prominent leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Roberto H. Todd,^[4] had written to U.S. President McKinley asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention was planned for Cuba as early as March 10th. They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island.^[5]

Spanish preparations

With the outbreak of war, the Spanish Governor of Puerto Rico, Manuel Macías y Casado, declared martial law, resolving to resist the American forces.^[6] He declared: "Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard, nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes... Long live Puerto Rico, always Spanish. Long live Spain."^[6] Macías y Casado hoped that a grant of autonomy would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to the Spanish crown.^[6]

The Naval Campaign in Puerto Rico (May 12th - August 13th)

Battle of San Juan and blockade

Ordoñez 15 cm Cannon which opened fire on the Yale^[7]

The Battle of San Juan, not to be confused with the Battle of San Juan Hill, refers to an American naval attack on the fortifications of San Juan, Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War. For weeks, the United States Navy had been anxiously awaiting the arrival of the Spanish fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete, unaware that he had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the Bay of Santiago.^[8]

On May 10, 1898, Capt. Angel Rivero Mendez was assigned the command of the Spanish forces in the fortress of San Cristobal in San Juan. Capt. Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to upen fire upon the USS Yale using an Ordoñez 15 Centimetre Cannon, thus becoming the first attack against the Americans in Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War.^[9] For his actions, he was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar" (The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class.^[9]

On May 12, U.S. Admiral William T. Sampson and a fleet of 12 American ships arrived in San Jaun to enforce a blockade and bombarded the city, causing and receiving superficial damage. Taking casualties and low on coal, Sampson broke off the engagement and returned to Key West, Florida for repairs and supplies.^[10]

Bombardment of San Felipe del Morro

On June 22, 1898, the USS Saint Paul under the command of Captain Charles Sigsbee arrived to San Juan Bay from Cuba and joined the blockade. Shortly after midday an old Spanish cruiser named Isabel II set off from San Juan to engage the Saint Paul under protection of shore batteries. She opened fire on Saint Paul at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade. Terror, a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs, attempted to cover the cruiser's escape with a torpedo attack but was thwarted when her rudder was put out of action by a direct hit from the Saint Paul. The breaking of the Terror's rudder caused the ship to turn, allowing the Saint Paul to score direct hits near the Terror's waterline, disabling one of her engines and causing her to list. The Terror gave up the attack and returned to port, followed by Isabel II. On June 26th the Saint Paul was relieved by the USS Yosemite, which continued to blockade the port.^[11]

The residents of San Juan were furious with Rivero and blamed him for the destruction caused to their city by the American bombardments. Nothing came of those accusations and Capt. Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of the U.S. Army after the Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed. ^[9]

The Land Campaign in Puerto Rico (July 25th - August 13th)

Landing in Guanica

USS Yale (1898)

The Spanish forces expected the Americans to attack the northern region of the island and concentrated their defenses around San Juan and Arecibo. The Spanish government was also aware of a planned landing by the Americans in Fajardo, located on the east coast and had that city fortified. However, the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico were left with little or no defenses at all.^[12]

After Cuba was taken, President McKinley approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of Fajardo, taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Jaun, where they expected the initial attack. A convoy of ships left Tampa, Florida and on July 21st another convoy, which included the USS Yale, USS Massachusetts, USS Gloucester and the USS Dixie, departed from Guantanamo for a 4 day journey to Puerto Rico.^[13]

Major General Nelson A. Miles, Commanding General of the Army, was aboard the USS Yale. While approaching the Strait of Mona of Puerto Rico, Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island, picking Guanica as his landing zone. He sent patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and order them to join him. His decision was based on his belief that the city of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that small gun boats based on the shore could disrupt a landing there.^[12]^[13]

Guanica Lighthouse c.1893

On July 25, Miles and a convoy of ships, under the command of Naval Captain Francis J. Higginson, arrived at Guanica Bay. The following troop carrying ships were part of the convoy: USS Yale with Generals Miles and Garretson, plus 1,300 infantry soldiers of the 3,300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion, USS Columbia, USS Lampasas, USS Comanche with General Guy V. Henry, Nueces, USS Unionist, USS Stillwater, Rita and USS Specialist (both the Nueces and the Rita were Spanish ship which were confiscated by the Yale). These ships were accompanied by the following battleships, destroyers and cruisers: the flagship USS Massachusetts, USS Gloucester, USS Dixie and USS Wasp.^[12]^[13]

In 1898, Guanica was a small barrio within the jurisdiction of the town of Yauco. It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was 11 members of the 4th Volante de Yauco, a Puerto Rican militia unit, under the command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López. When the lighthouse keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy, he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the barrio. All of the residents, with the exception Agustín Barrenechea, Vicente Ferrer, Juan María Morciglio, Simón Mejil, Salvador Muñoz, Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena who welcomed the invadors, abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke the news of the invading forces to the city's mayor.^[13]

First skirmish

Gloucester landing team

The Gloucester was the first ship to set anchor in the Bay of Guanica. Twenty-eight sailors and Marines, under the command of Lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood, departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach. The Marines lowered the Spanish Flag from the beach flagpole and replaced it with the American Flag. They then proceeded to set up a machine gun nest and placed barbed wire around their perimeter. The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lt. Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans. During the small battle which followed, the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and the Gloucester began to bombard the Spanish position. Lt. Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and the militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of Yauco.^[12]^[13]

Invasion

General Nelson Miles and other soldiers on horseback in Puerto Rico.

After the skirmish was over, men from the Lampasas landed on the beach to secure the area and to build a landing dock. 3,300 American soldiers under the command of General Miles landed. The units that landed were the 6th Volunteer Regiments of Illinois and Massachusetts, an Artillery battalion, five battery companies, two engineer companies and a medical unit.^[13] The men who had not abandoned the barrio of Guanica swore allegiance to the United States. Brigadier General George A. Garretson named Agustín Barrenechea mayor of Guanica and Simón Mejil the chief of police. On the afternoon of the 25th, Garretson left Guánica with seven companies of the 6th Massachusetts and one company of the 6th Illinois and headed towards Yauco.^[13]

Secretary of War Russell A. Alger learned about the landing at Guanica the next day when he read an Associated Press report in a local Washington D.C. newspaper. The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report. Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly. Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after the invasion:^[14]

"Spanish troops are retreating from southern part of Puerto Rico. This is a prosperous and beautiful country. The Army will soon be in mountain region. Weather delightful; troops in the best of health and spirit. Anticipate no insurmountable obstacles in future results. Results thus far have been accomplished without loss of a single life."^[14]

Battle of Yauco

LtCol Francisco Puig

After Rivera, the keeper of the Guánica lighthouse, notified Atilio Gaztambide, the mayor of the town of Yauco, located six miles north of Guánica, of the American invasion of Guanica, the mayor in turn notified Governor Macías via telegraph. Governor Macías ordered Captain Salvador Meca and his 3rd company of the 25th Patria Battalion from Yauco to head for Guánica. Meca and his men were joined by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig, who assumed command of the Spanish forces at Hacienda Desideria two miles from Guánica. Puig arrived with two companies known as "Cazador Patria Battalion," and they were joined by Puerto Rican volunteers, the Civil Guards, and mounted guerrillas from the towns of Yauco and Sabana Grande. Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to Hacienda Desideria and Yauco, as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda.^[15]

In the meantime, US Brigadier General George A. Garretson, set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing the Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the City of Ponce, the largest city in the southern region of the island.^[15] Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and he was informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria and he ordered the Illinois company and two companies (companies L and M) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked the hacienda.^[15]

Battlefield of Yauco 1898

Captain San Pedro detected the movements of the American troops from his positions on a nearby hill and ordered his men to open fire. Garretson then ordered a direct attack on the Spanish and Puerto Rican forces in the hacienda. At day break, the 6th Massachusetts overran the Spanish forces and suffered four casualties.^[15] Puig was expecting reinforcements from Yauco which did not arrive and was ordered to disengage and retreat. Before retreating the right wing of the Spanish force, which was not overrun, initiated a flanking attack against two positions held by Illinois and Massachusetts companies. The unexpected strength of the Spanish force caused some of the 6th Massachusetts troops to momentarily panic, but the Spanish forces were eventually driven off. Puig and his forces suffered 2 officers and 3 soldiers wounded and 2 soldiers dead.^[15]

19th century train station in Yauco

Puig and his men retreated towards Yauco, but failed to destroy the rail terminus which connected the town to the city of Ponce, and proceeded to march towards the town of Penuelas. Garretson's troops entered Yauco in the afternoon of July 26th and on July 27th Puig's men continued their march, leaving their artillery and heavy equipment behind, passing the towns of Adjuntas and Utuado and finally arriving at the town of Arecibo on the northern coast of the island on July 29th.^[15] Col. Puig, believing that he would be dishonored and accused by the Spanish Government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat, committed suicide on August 2.^[16]

Major General Nelson A. Miles, upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle, ordered an investigation. The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander, a lieutenant colonel, a major, and a captain resigned upon request.^[15]

Battle of Fajardo

Fajardo lighthouse, c. 1898.

On August 1st, the USS Puritan under the command of Captain Frederic W. Rodgers, was sailing by the coastline of the city of Fajardo, when Rogers noticed the lighthouse which was supposed to the landing site for the US Army in Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered some of his men ashore, which included Puerto Rican volunteers, with the mission of posting the American Flag atop the lighthouse.^[17]

On August 2nd, three more ships, the USS Amphitrite, USS Leyden, and the USS Hannibal arrived and joined the Puritan. The 25-man Spanish garrison stationed in the city became aware of the American presence and, after notifying their superiors in San Juan, were told to withdraw. When Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada, the mayor of city, realized that the garrison was gone and that the city was defenseless against the invading Americans, he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend his city.^[17] Believing that the Spanish forces would not come to his aid, Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada then went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the city from the Americans. On the afternoon of August 3rd, Veve Calzada entered the city with a contingent of Marines and the United States flag was hoisted over the Fajardo Customs House and City Hall.^[17]

On August 4th, Governor General Macias sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and 200 men to recapture the city. When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo he found it nearly deserted because the residents, fearing a battle, had fled to the Fajardo lighthouse. Pino waited until darkness fell and then ordered his men to attack the lighthouse. The Marines signaled the ships that they were under attack and the ships began to bombard the shore in a protective pattern. The Spanish forces retreated back to the city.^[17]

The following day Marine Lieutenant John A. Lejeune came ashore with a detachment of Marines and evacuated the civilians and Marines for transport to Ponce, and the lighthouse was abandoned. Meanwhile, in the City of Fajardo, Pino's men tore down the United States flags that flew over the Customs House and City Hall and returned to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned, displaying the flags as his trophies of war. It was the only time that American forces were forced to withdraw from any position during the campaign in Puerto Rico.^[17]

Battle of Guayama

After the town of Yauco was taken, MG Nelson A. Miles decided to attack the City of Ponce by sea and by land. General Garretson's 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guanica and after the troops rested, Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce. Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas, in charge of the Spanish forces in that city, had pulled out, leaving behind a small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town. ^[18] When the American forces arrived in Ponce they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered to the invaders. Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois, 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take Arroyo, a small port 60 miles east of Ponce that served the larger, nearby inland town of Guayama.^[18] Arroyo was taken on August 2nd and on August 5th Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio, the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims-Dudley guns, manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio, to capture Guayama.^[18]

Spanish troops in Guayama

Spanish forces were entrenched on the crest of two small hills, between which the road from Arroyo to Guayama ran. The Americans had crossed a stream in front of the hills when suddenly the Spanish opened fire. The Americans protected their position by the stream and increased their fire power as more reinforcements arrived.^[18] The Spanish troops retreated to Guayama as the Americans made their advance on the hills. The firefight, which lasted half an hour, left three American wounded. When the 4th Ohio entered the town they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned the city, ending the Battle of Guayama. General John Rutter Brooke used the Cautino Residence by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters.^[18]

Battle of the Guamani River Bridge

On August 6th, Colonel Coit sent two companies of the 4th Ohio on a reconnaissance mission across and beyond a cast iron bridge that crossed the Río Guanamí (Guamani River). The road beyond the bridge was essential for General Hains' projected advance to the town of Cayey.^[14] The 4th Ohio observed elements of Spain's 6th Provisional Battalion entrenched in Guanamí Heights, six miles north of the bridge. The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time.^[18] The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9th, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guanami Heights.^[14]^[18] This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guanica, as it resulted in seven wounded. The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded.^[14]

Battle of Coamo

The 3rd Wisconsin awaits orders to charge the Spanish at Coamo

Shortly after the American soldiers disembarked, a group of Spanish and Puerto Rican units began moving from Ponce to Aibonito, marching trough the Carretera Central (Central Highway). The caravan was composed of two companies of the Batallón de Cazadores de la Patria (Battalion of the Motherland's Hunters) and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican guerilla force. A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas, the same person who was in charge of the Ponce garrison.^[19] Traveling by foot, the journey would last two days. The group decided to spend one night in Coamo before continuing their march in the morning.^[19] Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches; while building these, the soldiers were ambushed by an anti-Spanish guerilla force, led by Pedro María Descartes, who managed to kill a member of the Civil Guard.^[19]

Spanish and Puerto Rican prisoners of war after the Battle of Coamo

Meanwhile, two battalions of voluntaries from Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, led by Generals Oswald H. Ernst and James H. Wilson, settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo.^[19] On August 9, 1898, the Americans began their offensive, opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire.^[20] The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city. A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside, having advanced trough a river nearby. The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson's army under General Ernst, attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire, employing a tactic known as the pincer movement.^[21] Martínez Illescas was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack, but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second-in-command, leaving Captain Hita in charge, who ordered his men to surrender. Half of the allied troops ignored the order, and continued the attack. Hita's men were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp located a Río Descalabrado, while the men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using the pincer movement tactic.^[21]

Battle of Silva Heights

Col. Julio Soto Villanueva (X) with his staff in Mayagüez

Brigadier General Theodore Schwan and 2,896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guanica and marched towards occupied Yauco. Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of Mayagüez. Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1,500 Spanish Regulars of the 24th Rifle Battalion, six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries, and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan. The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge called the Silva Heights, located at a road near the town of Hormigueros.^[14]

Schwan's troops arrived in the town of San German and continued the march towards their objective. Troop A of Schwan's 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in a firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire. The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry, supported by artillery and Gatling guns, as well as the 11th Infantry. The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire.^[14] Schwan's men set up camp on the Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish had abandoned the city to retreat east towards Lares. Schwan did not follow Soto Villanueva, but instead was ordered to take the town of Las Marias. The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead, 6 wounded, and 136 prisoners. Schwan's brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action.^[14]

Battle of Asomante

Spanish trenches in Asomante

The American cavalry pursued the soldiers that had retreated from Coamo, but were not able to reach them until the units had entered Aibonito Pass, a region more commonly known as Asomante. The region had been prepared by allied Puerto Rican and Spanish troops, who had built a trench and placed soldiers and equipment around the foliage.^[22] As soon as the soldiers noticed the presence of the invading unit they opened cannon fire. The cavalry received infantry reinforcements, which were received by battery fire. Six American soldier were injured in the crossfire, prompting a retreat order.^[22] The allied units (Spanish and Puerto Rican) lost five soldiers and two civil guards.^[22] During the following two days the Americans decided to do a battlefield reconnaissance and Colonel S. Reber, developed a croquis of the Aibonito Pass. Spies were deployed throughout Coamo, including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne, who was able to enter the city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas, a separatist teacher.^[23] Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas.^[23] While inactive, the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours, working four hours daily. They mostly ate beans, some rice and meat, while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive.^[24] They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from the rain.^[24]

Puerto Rican soldiers and their Spanish Commander (in white) pose with their American captors

The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery, while sending a large group to Barranquitas, from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back.^[25] At 10:30 a.m. Captain R.D. Potts led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment trough the central highway to Aibonito. Lieutenants Bliss and O'Hern led two units with similar equipment. At 1:00 p.m. the allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range.^[26] Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard's right.^[26] They intended to defeat the a small group led by Captain Hernaíz. Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster's location, and he asked Potts to help him by deploying a battery nearby. One of Hernaíz's Placensias cannons overheated, which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive.^[27] Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated, ordered an advance. However the allied fire was renewed, this time supported by Mauser rifle fire. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby.^[28] Fearing that the allied units could capture the American equipment, Landcaster ordered a retreat. Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet, being replaced by Sergeant John Long. Meanwhile, most of Potts' men fled the battlefield. In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry, using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery,^[29] during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Sawanson.^[30] Private Frederick Yough, Corporal August Yank, George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries, with Yough subsequently dying. Harris' position was filled by O'Hern, while Sawanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery. In total the allied units had only a injured artillery man, while the American side had two dead and five injured. Wilson's camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him of the amnesty declared by the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante, but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving a telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty.^[31] All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13, after President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico.^[5]

Aftermath

In a 1898 newspaper cartoon, "Uncle Sam" watches as the "Goddess of Liberty" heralds "freedom" for Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines

The Puerto Rico Campaign, which began with the blockade of San Juan harbor on May 12th and ended on August 13th after the Treaty of Paris was signed, was short compared to the other campaigns in the Spanish American War. This was in part because the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators.^[14] Some Puerto Rican leaders such as Jose de Diego and Eugenio Maria de Hostos expected the United States to grant the island its independence.^[32]^[33] The Spanish, Puerto Ricans and Americans that participated in the campaign totaled 33,472. Of this total 18,000 were Spanish, 10,000 were Puerto Rican and 15,472 were American military personnel. The Spanish and Puerto Rican suffered 429 casualties which included 17 dead, 88 wouded and 324 captured. The American forces suffered 43 casualties: 3 dead and 40 wounded.^[34]

Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ratified on December 10, 1898, Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States. Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence. The United States established a military government and appointed Major General Nelson A. Miles the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs.^[35] Members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain. By October 18th, the Spanish withdrawal from Puerto Rico was completed as the final troops left San Juan for Spain.^[5] Those who belonged to the Spanish military who decided to stay in Puerto Rico were offered the option by the United States to serve in the newly formed "Porto Rico Regiment". Some took the offer, such as Teófilo Marxuach, a former Lieutenant in the Spanish Army who joined the regiment,^[36], and others, such as Capt. Angel Rivero Méndez, declined the offer and retired from the military.^[37]

Almost immediately, the United States began the "Americanization" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an "unincorporated territory" which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S.^[38] In 1899, U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar described Puerto Ricans as "uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing" and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in the island's schools and only English should be taught.^[39] Schools became the primary vehicle of Americanization, and initially all classes were taught in English, which also made for a large dropout rate.^[38]

On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico (On May 17, 1932, U.S. Congress changed the name back to "Puerto Rico") and the islands currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the American dollar, integrating the island's currency into the U.S. monetary system.^[40] The United States exerted their control over the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations, from determining tariffs, and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers.^[38] Military rule was replaced by a civilian government by way of the Foraker Act of 1900. However, the Act stipulated that the governor and top officials were presidentially appointed and they were all to be Americans.^[38] In 1952, the archipelago's status was reviewed, and the Estado Libre Associado, a variation of self-governing commonwealth, was implemented.^[41]^[42]