See also: Thue-Morse constant

This graphic demonstrates the repeating and complementary makeup of the Thue-Morse sequence.

The Thue-Morse sequence begins:

0 1 10 1001 10010110 1001011001101001...

However, sometimes other symbols are used besides 0 and 1, such as 1 and 2, or 1 and 0 (in the opposite order), or left and right, up and down, etc. Thus one may speak of the Thue-Morse sequence on a given ordered pair.

Definition

There are several equivalent ways of defining the Thue-Morse sequence.

Direct definition

To compute the nth element t_n, write the number n in binary. If the number of ones in this binary expansion is odd then t_n=1, if even then t_n=0. For this reason John H. Conway et al. call numbers n satisfying t_n=1 odious numbers and numbers for which t_n=0 evil numbers.

Recurrence relation

The Thue-Morse sequence is the sequence t_n satisfying t_0 = 0 and

t_{2n} = t_n

t_{2n+1} = 1-t_n

for all positive integers n.

L-system

The Thue-Morse sequence is the output of the following Lindenmayer system: variables 0 1 constants none start 0 rules (0 ? 01), (1 ? 10)

Characterization using bitwise negation

The Thue-Morse sequence in the form given above, as a sequence of bits, can be defined recursively using the operation of bitwise negation. So, the first element is 0. Then once the first 2ⁿ elements have been specified, forming a string s, then the next 2ⁿ elements must form the bitwise negation of s. Now we have defined the first 2ⁿ⁺¹ elements, and we recurse.

Spelling out the first few steps in detail:

• We start with 0.
• The bitwise negation of 0 is 1.
• Combining these, the first 2 elements are 01.
• The bitwise negation of 01 is 10.
• Combining these, the first 4 elements are 0110.
• The bitwise negation of 0110 is 1001.
• Combining these, the first 8 elements are 01101001.
• And so on.

Infinite product

The sequence can also be defined by:

\prod_{i=0}^{} (1 - x^{2^{i}}) = \sum_{j=0}^{\infty} (-1)^{t_j} x^{j} \mbox{,} \!

where t_j is the jth element if we start at j = 0.

Some properties

Nested squares generated by successive iterations of Thue-Morse.

The statement above that the Thue-Morse sequence is "filled with squares" can be made precise: It is a recurrent sequence, meaning that given any finite string X in the sequence, there is some length n_X (often much longer than the length of X) such that X appears in every block of length n. The easiest way to make a recurrent sequence is to form a periodic sequence, one where the sequence repeats entirely after a given number m of steps. Then n_X can be set to any multiple of m that is larger than twice the length of X. But the Morse sequence is recurrent without being periodic, nor even eventually periodic (meaning periodic after some nonperiodic initial segment).

One can define a function f from the set of binary sequences to itself by replacing every 0 in a sequence with 01 and every 1 with 10. Then if T is the Thue-Morse sequence, then f(T) is T again; that is, T is a fixed point of f. In fact, T is essentially the only fixed point of f; the only other fixed point is the bitwise negation of T, which is simply the Thue-Morse sequence on (1,0) instead of on (0,1). This property may be generated to the concept of an automatic sequence.

In combinatorial game theory

The set of evil numbers (numbers n with t_n=0) forms a subspace of the nonnegative integers under nim-addition (bitwise exclusive or). For the game of Kayles, the evil numbers form the sparse space?the subspace of nim-values which occur for few (finitely many) positions in the game?and the odious numbers are the common coset.

The Prouhet-Tarry-Escott Problem

The Prouhet-Tarry-Escott Problem can be defined as: given a positive integer N and a non-negative integer k, partition the set S of integers n^k with 0 ? n < N into two disjoint subsets S₀ and S₁ that have equal sums, that is:

\sum_{x \in S_0} x = \sum_{x \in S_1} x .

This has a solution if N is a multiple of 2^k+1, given by:

• S₀ consists of the powers n^k in S for which t_n = 0,
• S₁ consists of the powers n^k in S for which t_n = 1.

For example, for N = 8 and k = 2,

The condition requiring that N be a multiple of 2^k+1 is not strictly necessary: there are some further cases for which a solution exists. However, it guarantees a stronger property: if the condition is satisfied, then the set of k-th powers of any set of N numbers in arithmetic progression can be partitioned into two sets with equal sums. This follows directly from the expansion given by the binomial theorem applied to the binomial representing the n-th element of an arithmetic progression.

Fractals and Turtle graphics

A Turtle Graphics is the curve that is generated if an automaton is programmed with a sequence. If the Thue-Morse Sequence members are used in order to select program states:

• If t(n) = 0, move ahead by one unit,
• If t(n) = 1, rotate counterclockwise by an angle of ?/3,

the resulting curve converges to the Koch snowflake, a fractal curve of infinite length containing a finite area. This illustrates the fractal nature of the Thue-Morse Sequence.

History

The Thue-Morse sequence was first studied by Eugène Prouhet in 1851, who applied it to number theory. However, Prouhet did not mention the sequence explicitly; this was left to Axel Thue in 1906, who used it to found the study of combinatorics on words. The sequence was only brought to worldwide attention with the work of Marston Morse in 1921, when he applied it to differential geometry. The sequence has been discovered independently many times, not always by professional research mathematicians; for example, Max Euwe, a chess grandmaster and mathematics teacher, discovered it in 1929 in an application to chess: by using its cube-free property (see above), he showed how to circumvent a rule aimed at preventing infinitely protracted games by declaring repetition of moves a draw.

External links

• The Ubiquitous Prouhet-Thue-Morse Sequence. Allouche, J.-P.; Shallit, J. O. Many applications and some history
• MathWorld: Thue-Morse Sequence. Some other applications
• Thue-Morse Sequence
• Thue-Morse Sequence over (1,2)
• Odious numbers
• Evil numbers
• When Thue-Morse meets Koch A paper showing an astonishing similarity between the Thue-Morse Sequence and the Koch snowflake
• Reducing the influence of DC offset drift in analog IPs using the Thue-Morse Sequence A technical application of the Thue-Morse Sequence
• MusiNum - The Music in the Numbers Freeware to generate self similar music based on the Thue-Morse Sequence and related number sequences.

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