Pope Leo XIII (2 March 1810—20 July 1903), born Count Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903, succeeding Pope Pius IX. Reigning until the age of 93, he was the oldest pope, and had the third longest pontificate, behind Pius IX and John Paul II. He is known as the "Pope of the Working Man" and "The Social Pope".

Early life

Leo XIII's brother, Giuseppe Pecci, the last cardinal-nephew

Pecci was named papal assistant in 1843. He first achieved note as the popular and successful Archbishop of Perugia from 1846 till 1877, during which period he had to cope, among others, with the earthquake and subsequent famine that hit Umbria in 1854. In addition to his post in Perugia, he was appointed Cardinal-Priest of S. Crisogono in 1853.

In August 1877, on the death of Cardinal De Angelis, Pope Pius IX appointed him camerlengo, so that he was obliged to reside in Rome. Pope Pius died 7 February 1878, and during his closing years the Liberal press had often insinuated that the Italian Government should take a hand in the conclave and occupy the Vatican. However the Russo-Turkish War and the sudden death of Victor Emmanuel II (9 January 1878) distracted the attention of the government, the conclave proceeded as usual, and after the three scrutinies Cardinal Pecci was elected by forty-four votes out of sixty-one.

Theology

The pontificate of Leo XIII was theologically influenced by the Ecumenical Council Vatican One, (1869.-1870) which ended only eight years earlier. Leo issued some 46 apostolic letters and encyclicals dealing with central issues in the areas marriage and family and state and society.

Thomism

Thomas Aquinas: Pope Leo XIII recommended Thomas Aquinas as a model for theological and philosophical studies.

Scriptures

In his 1893 encyclical Providentissimus Deus, he described the importance of scriptures for theological study, an important encyclical for Catholic theology and its relation to the bible, as Pope Pius XII pointed out fifty years later in his encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu. ^[2] In Providentissimus Deus, Leo gave new encouragement to Bible study while warning against rationalist interpretations which deny the inspiration of Scripture:

"For all the books which the Church receives as sacred and canonical, are written wholly and entirely, with all their parts, at the dictation of the Holy Ghost: and so far is it from being possible that any error can co-exist with inspiration, that inspiration not only is essentially incompatible with error, but excludes and rejects it as absolutely and necessarily as it is impossible that God Himself, the supreme Truth, can utter that which is not true." (Providentissimus Deus)

Ecumencial efforts

Pope Leo XIII was fostering ecumenical relations leading to the reintegration of the Armenian Church into the Catholic Church in 1879. He opposed efforts to latinize the Eastern Rite Churches, stating that they constitute a most valuable ancient tradition and symbol of the divine unity of the Catholic Church. His 1894 encyclical Praeclara Gratulationis praised the cultural and liturgical diversity of expressions of faith within the Church . In Orientalum Dignitatis he repeated the need to preserve and cultivate diversity. ^[3] On 29 June 1896 Leo XIII issued the encyclical Satis Cognitum, in which he invited separated brothers and sisters to join the Catholic Church. During his pontificate, major conversions continued, in England under the influence Cardinal John Henry Newman. Efforts to draw theAnglican communities closer to the Catholic Church experienced a set-back, when the Vatican announced in 1896 after a historical analysis, that the Apostolic Succession of Anglican Bishops was not completely secured, meaning that several but not all Anglican bishops were not properly ordained. ^[4] However, Leo managed to improve relations with the Orthodox Church with his open approach ^[5] The 1896 bull Apostolicae Curae declared the ordination of deacons, priests, and bishops in Anglican churches (including the Church of England) invalid, while granting recognition to ordinations in the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches although they were considered illicit.

Theological research

John Henry Newman was rasied into the College of Cardinals by Pope Leo XIII

His 1899 apostolic letter Testem Benevolentiae condemned Americanism, an alledged American modernistic view, meaning that the teachings of the Church must be adapted to American society. Leo condemned the view that Catholic dogmas, which seem to be contrary to the American experience, should be left out, and, that natural virtues are more important than supernatural ones. ^[7] American bishops led by Cardinal James Gibbons of Baltimore thanked him and expressed gratitude for setting the record straight Gibbons however pointed out, that no Catholic in the USA held that view. ^[8] When, at the end of the pontificate of Leo XIII in 1878, the papacy had regained much of its prestige and authority, ^[9] his theological teachings had contributed to it.

Rosary Pope

His predecessor, Pope Pius IX, became known as the Pope of the Immaculate Conception because of the dogmatization in 1854. Leo XIII, in light of his unprecedented promulgation of the rosary in eleven encyclicals was called Rosary Pope. He is clearly concerned with attempts to destroy the Christian faith, and, to ban Christ from the face of the earth ^[10] The destruction of the ethical order will lead to disaster and war, so Leo XIII. He dedicates the human race to the Immaculate Heart of Jesus. But the re-Christianisation is not possible without Mary, so Leo XIII. In eleven encyclicals on the rosary he promulgates Marian devotion. In his encyclical on the fiftieth anniversary of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception, he stresses her role in the redemption of humanity, mentioning Mary as Mediatrix andCo-Redemptrix.

Mediatrix

The Rosary Pope Leo XIII is the first Pope to fully embrace the concept of Mary as mediatrix. In his rosary encyclicals, he described the Virgin Mary as mediating all graces. In 1883 he wrote that nothing is as salvific and powerful as asking for the support of the Virgin, the mediator of peace with God and of heavenly graces. ^[11] In his rosary encyclical Octobri Mense, he stated, that Mary is administrator of graces on earth, part of a new salvation order. ^[12] In Dei Matris he noted, that Mary is mediator because Christ the Lord is also our brother ^[13] And, in Jucunda Semper, he stated, that the deepest reason, why we look for the protection of Mary through prayer, is most certainly her office as mediator of divine grace. ^[14] In Augustissimae Virginis, he wrote that calling on Mary is the best way to be heard by God, and to find his grace ^[15]

Co-Redemptrix

The views of Pope Leo XIII regarding Mary as a redeemer with Christ, rely on Thomas Aquinas. From him he borrows the notion, that Mary, in the hour of Annunciation assumed the role of a helper in the mystery of redemption. Thus All Christians are born through Mary. With Jesus, Mary carried all in her womb. Therefore all are her children. ^[16]

Influences

Leo XIII recalled Louis de Montfort whom he beatified on the very day of his own golden jubilee as a priest.^[17] He (as did later Pius X) applied the Marian analysis of Montfort to the analysis of the Church as a whole. ^[18] His mariology was greatly influenced by Thomas Aquinas, especially his view of Mary?s role in the annunciation. ^[19]

Leo is considered to be one of the most intelligent popes and his teachings are a possible reflection of that: The style is crisp, short but very clear. A centennial after his death, he is often quoted and used, most recently by Pope Benedict XVI and John Paul II, both of whom, however, did not display "the Marian courage and confidence" of Leo XII in the areas of Mediatrix and Co-Redemptrix.

Leo actively employed his papal authority to support the veneration of Mary in places of her apparitions. ^[20] In 1879, he crowned Our Lady of La Salette. Upon the blessing and opening of the Church of our Lady in Lourdes, he issued an apostolic writing Parte humanae generi, supporting pilgrimages to Lourdes and other Marian shrines. He declared the Madonna of Monserat to be the patron of Catalonia, and instituted the Feast of the Miraculous Medal in 1894. He condemned heresies about the Immaculate conception ^[21] and discussed the relation of Saint Joseph to Mary in an 1889 encyclical. ^[22]

Social Teachings

Church and State

In 1889, Pope Leo XIII authorized the founding of the Catholic University of American in Washington, D.C., and granted her Papal degrees in theology

Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the Church and the modern world, though he preferred a cautious view on freedom of thought, stating that "is quite unlawful to demand, defend, or to grant unconditional freedom of thought, or speech, of writing or worship, as if these were so many rights given by nature to man" Leo?s social teachings are based on the Catholic premise, that God is the Creator of the world and its Ruler. Eternal law commands the natural order to be maintained, and forbids that it be disturbed; men?s destiny is far above human things and beyond the earth ^[23] Human nature is stained by original sin, and is therefore more disposed to vice than to virtue. He opposed notions of marriage as a commercial contract, divorce, and education without religion, a State without God ^[24] He rejected some forms of egalitarianism: "People differ in capacity, skill, health, strength; and unequal fortune is a necessary result of unequal condition. Such inequality is far from being disadvantageous either to individuals or to the community."^[25]All men are equal in regards to their common origin and nature, or the last end which each one has to attain, or the rights and duties which are thence derived. ^[26] Leo XIII predicts, that if state authorities do not hee these eternal truth, if they permit,? the fear of God and reverence for divine laws being taken away?, overthrow of the existing order and of the authorities themselves will occur. Attempts are under way he claims by communists, socialists and Freemasons. ^[27] But, whoever strive against the order which Divine Providence has constituted pay usually the penalty of their pride, and meet with affliction and misery where they rashly hoped to find all things prosperous and in conformity with their desires. Humanum Genus 28Obedience to God is a teaching which supports civil authorities, because Church teaching about the divine origin of authority civil authority, and fosters obedience to it. ^[28]

Rerum Novarum

His encyclicals changed Church positions on relations with temporal authorities, and, in the 1891 encyclical Rerum Novarum addressed for the first time social inequality and social justice issues with Papal authority, focusing on the rights and duties of capital and labour. He was greatly influenced by Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler, a German bishop who openly propagated siding with the suffering working classes ^[29] Since Leo XIII, Papal teachings expand on the right and obligation of workers and the limitations of private property: Pope Pius XI Quadragesimo Anno, the Social teachings of Pope Pius XII on a huge range of social issues, John XXIII Mater et Magistra in 1961, Pope Paul VI, the encyclical Populorum Progressio on World development issues, and Pope John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, commemorating the 100th anniversary of Rerum Novarum. Leo XIII had argued that both capitalism and communism are flawed. Rerum Novarum introduced the idea of subsidiarity into Catholic social thought. A full list of all of Leo's encyclicals can be found in the List of Encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII.

Papacy

Pope Leo XIII

Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the Church and the [[modern world. When he firmly re-asserted the scholastic doctrine that science and religion co-exist, he required the study of Thomas Aquinas^[30] and opened the Vatican Secret Archives to qualified researchers, among whom was the noted historian of the Papacy Ludwig von Pastor. Leo XIII was the first Pope to come out strongly in favour of the French Republic, upsetting many French monarchists. In his relations with the Italian state, Leo XIII continued the Papacy's self-imposed incarceration in the Vatican stance, and continued to insist that Italian Catholics should not vote in Italian elections or hold elected office. In his first consistory in 1879 he elevated his older brother Giuseppe a cardinal.

Leo XIII was the first Pope of whom a sound recording was made. The recording can be found on a compact disc of Alessandro Moreschi's singing; a recording of his performance of the Ave Maria is available on the web. He was also the first Pope to be filmed on the motion picture camera. He was filmed by its inventor, W. K. Dickson, and blessed the camera afterward.

The Coat of Arms of Pope Leo XIII

Under Bismarck, the anti-Catholic kulturkampf in Germany led to massive reprisals against the Church. Under Leo, the anti-Catholic measures subsided. The Centre Party in Germany was largely a Catholic creation and was a positive force for social change. It was encouraged by Leo's support for social welfare legislation and the rights of working people. Leo's forward-looking approach encouraged Catholic Action in other European countries where the social teachings of the Church were incorporated into the agenda of Catholic parties, particularly the Christian Democratic Parties, which became an acceptable alternative to socialist parties. Leo's social teachings were reiterated throughout the 20th century by his successors.

While Leo was no radical in either theology or politics, his papacy did move the Church back to the mainstream of European life. Considered a great diplomat, he managed to improve relations with Russia, Prussia, German France, England and other countries. However, in light of a hostile anti-Catholic climate in Italy, he continued the policies of Pius IX towards Italy, without major modifications. ^[31] He had to defend the freedom of he Church against Italian persecutions and attacks in the area of education, expropriation and violation of Catholic Churches, legal measures against the Church and brutal attacks, culminating in anticlerical groups attempting to throw the body of the deceased Pope Pius IX into the Tiber river on 13 July 1881. ^[32] The Pope even considered moving the papacy to Trieste or Salzburg, two cities in Austria, an idea, which the Austrian monarch Franz Josef I gently rejected. ^[33]

His favorite poets were Virgil and Dante.^[34]

In 1882 Pope Leo XIII wrote to the Austrian emperor Franz Josef I to move the papacy to Salzburg or Trieste

Canonizations and beatification

He canonized the following saints:

• 1881: Clare of Montefalco (d. 1308), John Baptist de Rossi (1696-1764), and Lawrence of Brindisi (d. 1619)
• 1883: Benedict Joseph Labre (1748-1783)
• 1888: Seven Holy Founders of the Servite Order, Peter Claver (1561-1654), John Berchmans (1599-1621), and Alphonsus Rodriguez (1531-1617)
• 1890: Blessed Giovenale Ancina (1545-1604)
• 1897: Anthony M. Zaccaria (1502-1539) and Peter Fourier of Our Lady (1565-1640)
• 1900: John Baptist de la Salle (1651-1719) and Rita of Cascia (1381-1457)

In addition, he beatified Gerard Majella in 1893 and Edmund Campion in 1886.

Relations with Russia ^[35]

Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) was able to reach several agreements in 1896, which resulted in better conditions for the faithful and additional appointments of bishops.

After the assassination of Alexander II, the Pope sent a high ranking representative to the coronation of his successor. Alexander III was grateful and asked for all religious forces to unify. He asked the Pope to ensure that his bishops abstain from political agitation. Relations improved further, when Pope Leo XIII, due to Italian considerations, distanced the Vatican from the Rome- Vienna, Berlin alliance and helped to facilitate an rapprochement between Paris and St. Petersburg. Meanwhile the Ruthenians continued to be persecuted and Rome was not able to assist much. Russia began to protest against Church uses by Polish groups for anti-Russian activities, and the Pope found himself in the same dilemma as his predecessor Pius IX. He was personally attacked for sacrificing Polish interest in the language dispute. Russia in turn accused its Catholics of being disloyal citizens, without attacking the Pope himself.

After the elevation of Tsar Nicolas II in 1894, Pope Leo XIII was able to reach additional agreements in 1896, which resulted in better conditions for the faithful, numerous specific dispensations and permits, and additional appointments of bishops. However, he was not able to reopen the nunciature in St. Petersburg. His pontificate ended with atmospheric improvements between the Vatican and Russia.

Relations with the United Kingdom and the Americas

One of the Papal Tiaras given to Pope Leo XIII during his reign.

Among the activities of Leo XIII that were important for the English-speaking world we might certainly count the encyclical "Apostolicæ Curæ" of 1896 on the non-validity of the Anglican orders. Furthermore, Leo restored the Scottish hierarchy in 1878. In British India, he established a Catholic hierarchy in 1886, and regulated some long-standing conflicts with the Portuguese authorities.

The United States at many moments in time attracted the attention and admiration of Pope Leo. He confirmed the decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884), and raised to the cardinalate Archbishop Gibbons of that city in 1886. Leo was not present at Washington on the occasion of the foundation of The Catholic University of America. His role in South America will also be remembered, especially the pontifical blessing extended over the Chilean troops on the eve of the Battle of Chorrillos during the War of the Pacific in January 1881. The blessed Chilean soldiers then looted the cities of Chorrillos and Barranco, including the churches, and their Chaplains headed the robbery at the Biblioteca Nacional del Perú, where the soldiers ransacked various items along with much capital, and the Chilean Priests were mainly interested in rare and ancient editions of the Bible that were stored there ^[36]. Despite this, one year later, Chilean President Domingo Santa Marìa issued the Laicist Laws, which separated the Church from the State, beign this considered a defeat by the Papacy. He is also rememberd for the First Plenary Council of Latin America held at Rome in 1899, and his encyclical of 1888 to the bishops of Brazil on the abolition of slavery.

American newspapers criticized Pope Leo because they claimed that he was attempting to gain control of American public schools. One cartoonist drew Leo as a fox unable to reach grapes that were labeled for American schools; the caption read "Sour grapes!"

Death

Leo XIII was the first Pope to be born in the 19th century. He was also the first to die in the 20th century: he lived to the age of 93, the longest living pope. At the time of his death, Leo XIII was the second-longest reigning successor of Peter, exceeded only by his immediate predecessor, Pius IX. Leo was not entombed in St. Peter's Basilica, as all popes after him were, but instead at St. John Lateran, a church in which he took a particular interest.

Audiences

In 1901, Pope Leo XIII welcomed Eugenio Pacelli, his later successor Pope Pius XII, on his first day of fifty-seven years of service in the Vatican (1901-1958)

• While on a pilgrimage with her father and sister in 1887, the future Saint Thérèse of Lisieux during a general audience with Pope Leo XIII, asked him to allow her to enter the Carmelite order. Even though she was strictly forbidden to speak to him because she was told it would prolong the audience too much, in her autobiography, Story of a Soul, she wrote that after she kissed his slipper and he presented his hand, instead of kissing it, she took it in her own hand and said through tears, "Most Holy Father, I have a great favor to ask you. In honor of your Jubilee, permit me to enter Carmel at the age of 15!" Pope Leo XIII answered, "Well, my child, do what the superiors decide." Thérèse replied, "Oh! Holy Father, if you say yes, everybody will agree!" Finally, the Pope said, "Go... go... You will enter if God wills it" [italics hers] after which time two guards lifted Thérèse (still on her knees in front of the Pope) by her arms and carried her to the door where a third gave her a medal of the Pope. Shortly thereafter, the Bishop of Bayeux authorized the prioress to receive Thérèse, and in April 1888, she entered Carmel at the age of 15.
• While known for his cheerful personality, Leo also had a gentle sense of humor as well. During one of his audiences, a man claimed to have had the opportunity to see Pius IX at one of his last audiences before his death in 1878. Upon hearing the remarkable story, Leo smiled and replied, "If I had known that you were so dangerous to popes, I would have postponed this audience further".
• He played chess to a fairly high level, although a game attributed to him 1875http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1242887 seems not to be genuine as it duplicates an earlier game Ilya Shumov vs Carl Friedrich Von Jaenisch.http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1337105

See also

• Distributism
• Prayer to Saint Michael
• List of Encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII

Literature

• Remigius Bäumer et.al Marienlexikon, Eos, St.Ottilien, 1992
• Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners, A History of the Popes, Yale University Press, 1997
• August Franzen, Remigius Bäumer, Papstgeschichte, Herder Freiburg, 1988
• O'Reilly, Bernard. Life of Leo XIII - From An Authentic Memoir - Furnished By His Order. 1887. New York: Charles L. Webster & Company.
• Thérèse, of Lisieux, Saint. Story of a Soul - The Autobiography of St. Thérèse of Lisieux Third Edition 1996. Washington, DC: ICS Publications. Translated from the original manuscripts by John Clarke, O.C.D.
• Josef Schmidlin, Papstgeschichte der neueren Zeit, München, 1934
• Quardt, Robert. Der Meisterdiplomat. 1964 Kevelaer,Germany: Verlag Butzon & Bercker. Translated by Ilya Wolston. The Master Diplomat - From the Life of Leo XIII. New York: Alba House.
• The Catholic Encyclopedia (edition of 1913, see also under External links)

References

External links

• Pope Leo XIII texts and biography from the Vatican
• Pope Leo XIII, overview of pontificate
• Etexts of his encyclicals and other documents
• Pope Leo XIII: text with concordances and frequency list

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