AMD Athlon XP Overclocking BIOS Setup on ABIT NF7-S. Front side bus frequency (External clock) has increased from 133 MHz to 148 MHz, and clock multiplier factor has changed from 13.5 to 16.5.

Overclocking is the process of forcing a computer component to run at a higher clock rate (more clock cycles per second) than it was designed for or was designated by the manufacturer, usually practiced by personal computer enthusiasts in order to emulate an increase in the performance of their computers. Some of them purchase low-end computer components which they then overclock to higher speeds, or overclock high-end components to attain levels of performance beyond the default factory settings. Others overclock outdated components to keep pace with new system requirements, rather than purchasing new hardware products as expected by the computer industry.^[1]

Users who overclock their components mainly focus their efforts on processors, video cards, motherboard chipsets, and Random Access Memory (RAM). It is done through manipulating the CPU multiplier and the motherboard's front side bus (FSB) speed until a maximum stable operating frequency is reached. While the idea is simple, variation in the electrical and physical characteristics of computing systems complicates the process. CPU multipliers, bus dividers, voltages, thermal loads, cooling techniques and several other factors can affect it.^[2]

Considerations

There are several considerations when overclocking. The first consideration is to ensure that the component is supplied with adequate power to operate at the new speed. However, supplying the power with improper settings or applying excessive voltage can permanently damage a component. Since tight tolerances are required for overclocking, only more expensive motherboards—with advanced settings that computer enthusiasts are likely to use—have built-in overclocking capabilities. Motherboards with fewer settings, such as those found in Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) systems, lack such features in order to eliminate the possibility of misconfiguration and cut down on the support costs and warranty claims to the manufacturer.

Cooling

High quality heatsinks are often made of copper.

All electronic circuits produce heat generated by the movement of electrons. As clock frequencies in digital circuits increase, the heat generated by overclocked components also increases. Due to increased heat produced by overclocked components, an effective cooling system is necessary to avoid damaging the hardware. In addition, digital circuits slow down at high temperatures due to changes in metal?oxide?semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) device characteristics. Wire resistance also increases slightly at higher temperatures, contributing to decreased circuit performance.

Because most stock cooling systems are designed for the amount of power produced during non-overclocked use, overclockers typically turn to more effective cooling solutions, such as powerful fans or heavy duty heatsinks. Size, shape, and material all influence the ability of a heatsink to dissipate heat. Efficient heatsinks are often made entirely of copper, which has high thermal conductivity, but is expensive.^[3] Aluminium is more widely used; it has poorer thermal conductivity, but is significantly cheaper than copper. Iron and steel are not often used in heatsinks due to their poor thermal conductivity. Many heatsinks combine two or more materials to achieve a balance between performance and cost.^[3]

Interior of a water-cooled computer, showing CPU water block, tubing, and pump

Thermoelectric cooling devices, also known as Peltier devices, are recently popular with the onset of high Thermal Design Power (TDP) processors made by Intel and AMD. Thermoelectric cooling devices create temperature differences between two plates by running an electric current through the plates. This method of cooling is highly effective but has a drawback that it leads to a lot of excess heat. For this reason, it is often necessary to supplement thermoelectric cooling devices with a convection-based heatsink or a water cooling system.

Liquid nitrogen may be used for cooling an overclocked system, when an extreme measure is needed.

Submersion cooling, used for Cray-2 supercomputer, involves sinking a part of computer system directly into a chilled liquid substance that is thermally conductive but sufficiently low in electrical conductivity. The advantage of this technique is that no condensation can form on components.^[6] A good submersion liquid is Fluorinert made by 3M, which is expensive and requires permits to purchase it.^[6] Another option is mineral oil, but any impurities like water or scenting agents might cause it to conduct electricity.^[6]

Stability and functional correctness

As an overclocked component operates outside of the manufacturer's recommended operating conditions, it may function incorrectly, leading to system instability. An unstable overclocked system, while it may work fast, can be frustrating to use. Another risk is silent data corruption—errors that are initially undetected. Such failures might never be correctly diagnosed and may instead be incorrectly attributed to software bugs in applications or the operating system.

In general, overclockers claim that testing can ensure that an overclocked system is stable and functioning correctly. Although software tools are available for testing hardware stability, it is generally impossible for any private individual to thoroughly test the functionality of a processor. Achieving good fault coverage requires immense engineering effort considering that even with all of the resources dedicated to validation by manufacturers, faults can still sometimes pass through undetected.

A particular "stress test" can verify only the functionality of the specific instruction sequence used in combination with the data and may not detect faults in those operations. For example, an arithmetic operation may produce the correct result but incorrect flags; if the flags are not checked, the error will go undetected.

To further complicate matters, in process technologies such as silicon on insulator, devices display hysteresis—a circuit's performance is affected by the events of the past, so without carefully targeted tests it is possible for a particular sequence of state changes to work at overclocked speeds in one situation but not another even if the voltage and temperature are the same. Often, an overclocked system which passes stress tests experiences instabilities in other programs.^[7]

In overclocking circles, "stress tests" or "torture tests" are used to check for correct operation of a component. These workloads are selected as they put a very high load on the component of interest (e.g. a graphically-intensive application for testing video cards, or a processor-intensive application for testing processors). Popular stress tests include Prime95, Super PI, SiSoftware Sandra, BOINC, Intel Thermal Analysis Tool and Memtest86. The hope is that any functional-correctness issues with the overclocked component will show up during these tests, and if no errors are detected during the test, the component is then deemed "stable". Since fault coverage is important in stability testing, the tests are often run for long periods of time, hours or even days.

Factors allowing overclocking

CPU-Z screenshot demonstrating an E2140 overclocked to twice its rated frequency.

When a manufacturer rates a chip for a certain speed, it must ensure that the chip functions properly at that speed over the entire range of allowed operating conditions. When overclocking a system, the operating conditions are usually tightly controlled, making the manufacturer's margin available as free headroom. Other system components are generally designed with margins for similar reasons; overclocked systems absorb this designed headroom and operate at lower tolerances. Pentium architect Bob Colwell calls overclocking an "uncontrolled experiment in better-than-worst-case system operation".^[8]

Some of what appears to be spare margin is actually required for proper operation of a processor throughout its lifetime. As semiconductor devices age, various effects such as hot carrier injection, negative bias thermal instability and electromigration reduce circuit performance. When overclocking a new chip it is possible to take advantage of this margin, but as the chip ages this can result in situations where a processor that has operated correctly at overclocked speeds for years spontaneously fails to operate at those same speeds later. If the overclocker is not actively testing for system stability when these effects become significant, errors encountered are likely to be blamed on sources other than the overclocking.

Measuring effects of overclocking

Benchmarks are used to evaluate performance. The benchmarks can themselves become a kind of 'sport', in which users compete for the highest scores. As discussed above, stability and functional correctness may be compromised when overclocking, and meaningful benchmark results depend on correct execution of the benchmark. Because of this, benchmark scores may be qualified with stability and correctness notes (e.g. an overclocker may report a score, noting that the benchmark only runs to completion 1 in 5 times, or that signs of incorrect execution such as display corruption are visible while running the benchmark).

Given only benchmark scores it may be difficult to judge the difference overclocking makes to the computing experience. For example, some benchmarks test only one aspect of the system, such as memory bandwidth, without taking into consideration how higher speeds in this aspect will improve the system performance as a whole. Apart from demanding applications such as video encoding, high-demand databases and scientific computing, memory bandwidth is typically not a bottleneck, so a great increase in memory bandwidth may be unnoticeable to a user depending on the applications they prefer to use. Other benchmarks, such as 3DMark attempt to replicate game conditions, but because some tests involve non-deterministic physics, such as ragdoll motion, the scene is slightly different each time and small differences in test score are overcome by the noise floor.

Variance

The extent to which a particular part will overclock is highly variable. Processors from different vendors, production batches, steppings, and individual units will all overclock with varying degrees of success.

Manufacturer and vendor overclocking

Commercial system builders or component resellers sometimes overclock to sell items at higher profit margins. The retailer makes more money by buying lower-value components, overclocking them, and selling them at prices appropriate to a non-overclocked system at the new speed. In some cases an overclocked component is functionally identical to a non-overclocked one of the new speed, however, if an overclocked system is marketed as a non-overclocked system (it is generally assumed that unless a system is specifically marked as overclocked, it is not overclocked), it is considered fraudulent.

Overclocking is sometimes offered as a legitimate service or feature for consumers, in which a manufacturer or retailer tests the overclocking capability of processors, memory, video cards, and other hardware products. Several video card manufactures now offer factory overclocked versions of their graphics accelerators, complete with a warranty, which offers an attractive solution for enthusiasts seeking an improved performance without sacrificing common warranty protections. Such factory overclocked products often demand a marginal price premium over reference-clocked components, but the performance increase and cost savings can sometimes outweigh the price increases associated with similar, albeit higher-performance offerings from the next product tier.

Naturally, manufacturers would prefer enthusiasts pay additional money for profitable high-end products, in addition to concerns of less reliable components and shortened product life spans impacting brand image. It is speculated that such concerns are often motivating factors for manufacturers to implement overclocking prevention mechanisms such as CPU locking. These measures are sometimes marketed as a consumer protection benefit, which typically generates a negative reception from overclocking enthusiasts.

Advantages

• The user can, in many cases, purchase a slower, cheaper component and overclock it to the speed of a more expensive component.

• Faster performance in games, encoding, video editing applications, and system tasks at no additional expense, but at increased cost for electrical power consumption. Particularly for enthusiasts who regularly upgrade their hardware, overclocking can increase the time before an upgrade is needed.

• Some systems have "bottlenecks," where small overclocking of a component can help realize the full potential of another component to a greater percentage than the limiting hardware is overclocked. For instance, many motherboards with AMD Athlon 64 processors limit the speed of four units of RAM to 333 MHz. However, the memory speed is computed by dividing the processor speed (which is a base number times a CPU multiplier, for instance 1.8 GHz is most likely 9x200 MHz) by a fixed integer such that, at stock speeds, the RAM would run at a clock rate near 333 MHz. Manipulating elements of how the processor speed is set (usually lowering the multiplier), one can often overclock the processor a small amount, around 100-200 MHz (less than 10%), and gain a RAM clock rate of 400 MHz (20% increase), realizing the full potential of the RAM.

• Overclocking can be an engaging hobby in itself and supports many dedicated online communities. The PCMark website is one such site that hosts a leaderboard for the most powerful computers to be benchmarked using the program.

• A new overclocker with proper research and precaution or a guiding hand can gain useful knowledge and hands-on experience about their system and pc systems in general.

Disadvantages

Many of the disadvantages of overclocking can be mitigated or reduced in severity by skilled overclockers. However, novice overclockers may make mistakes while overclocking which can introduce avoidable drawbacks and which are more likely to damage the overclocked components (as well as other components they might affect).

General

These disadvantages are unavoidable by both novices and veterans.

• The lifespan of a processor is negatively affected by higher operation frequencies, increased voltages and heat. Some Overclockers argue that with the rapid obsolescence of processors coupled with the long life of solid state microprocessors (10 years or more), the overclocked component will likely be replaced before its eventual failure. Also, since many overclockers are enthusiasts, they often upgrade components more often than the general population, offering further mitigation of this disadvantage.

• Increased clock speeds and/or voltages result in higher power consumption.

• While overclocked systems may be tested for stability before usage, stability problems may surface after prolonged usage due to new workloads or untested portions of the processor core. Ageing effects previously discussed may also result in stability problems after a long period of time. Even when your computer appears to be working normally, problems may arise unexpectedly in the future. For example, Windows may appear to work with no problems, but when you re-install or upgrade Windows, you may receive error messages such as a ?file copy error" during Windows Setup ^[9].

• High-performance fans used for extra cooling can produce large amounts of noise. Older popular models of fans used by overclockers can produce 50 decibels or more. However, nowadays, manufacturers are overcoming this problem by designing fans with aerodynamically optimized heatsinks for smoother airflow and minimal noise (around 20 decibels). Some people do not mind this extra noise, and it is common for overclockers to have computers that are much louder than stock machines. Noise can be reduced by utilising strategically placed larger fans which deliver more performance with less noise in the place of smaller and noisier fans, by using alternative cooling methods (such as liquid and phase-change cooling), by lining the chassis with foam insulation, and/or by installing a fan controlling bus to adjust fan speed (and, as a result, noise) to suit the task at hand. Now that overclocking is of interest to a larger target audience, this is less of a concern as manufacturers have begun researching and producing high-performance fans that are no longer as loud as their predecessors. Similarly, mid- to high-end PC cases now implement larger fans (to provide better airflow with less noise) as well as being designed with cooling and airflow in mind.

• Even with adequate CPU cooling, the excess heat produced by an overclocked processing unit increases the ambient air temperature of the system case; consequently, other components may be affected. Also, more heat will be expelled from the PC's vents, raising the temperature of the room the PC is in - sometimes to uncomfortable levels.

• Overclocking has a risky potential to end in component failure ("heat death"). Most warranties do not cover defunct units that result from overclocking activities. Some overclocker friendly motherboards offer safety measures that will stop this from happening (eg limitations on FSB increase) so that only voltage control alterations can cause such harm. It could be argued, however, that incremental voltage changes have very little chance of damaging components as any signs of instability would manifest themselves beforehand.

• Technically, overclocking a PC component may void the component's warranty (depending on the circumstances under which the component was sold).

• Potential fire risk if devices are not properly cooled.

Incorrectly performed overclocking

• Increasing the operation frequency of a component will increase its thermal output in a linear fashion, while an increase in voltage causes a quadratic increase. Overly aggressive voltage settings or improper cooling may cause chip temperatures to rise so quickly that irreversible damage is caused to the chip causing immediate failure or significantly reducing its lifetime.
• More common than hardware failure is functional incorrectness. Although the hardware is not permanently damaged, this is inconvenient and can lead to instability and data loss. In rare, extreme cases entire filesystem failure may occur, causing the loss of all data.^[10]
• With poor placement of fans, turbulence and vortices may be created in the computer case, resulting in reduced cooling effectiveness and increased noise. In addition, improper fan mounting may cause rattling or vibration.
• Improper installation of exotic cooling solutions like liquid or phase-change cooling may result in failure of the cooling system, which may result in water damage or damage to the processor due to the sudden loss of cooling.
• Sometimes products claim to be intended specifically for overclocking and may be just decoration. Novice buyers should be aware of the marketing hype surrounding some products. Examples include heat spreaders and heatsinks designed for chips which do not generate enough heat to benefit from these devices. (Memory chips, for example)

Limitations

The utility of overclocking is limited for a few reasons:

• Personal computers are mostly used for tasks which are not computationally demanding, or which are performance-limited by bottlenecks outside of the local machine. For example, web browsing does not require a very fast computer, and the limiting factor will almost certainly be the speed of the internet connection of either the user or the server. Overclocking a processor will also do little to help speed up application loading times as the limiting factor is reading data off of the hard drive. Other general office tasks such as word processing and sending email are more dependent on the efficiency of the user than on the speed of the hardware. In these situations any speed increases through overclocking are unlikely to be noticeable.
• It is generally accepted that, even for computationally-heavy tasks, speed increases of less than ten percent are difficult to discern. For example, when playing video games, it is difficult to discern an increase from 60 to 66 frames per second (FPS) without the aid of an on-screen frame counter. In such cases it does however usually allow the possible usage of higher image quality (so called eye candy) settings. The difference can also be between playable and unacceptable depending on the situation.

Graphics cards

The BFG GeForce 6800GSOC ships with higher memory and clock speeds than the standard 6800GS.

Sometimes, it is possible to see that a graphics card is pushed beyond its limits before any permanent damage is done by observing on-screen distortions known as artifacts. Two such discriminated "warning bells" are widely understood: green-flashing, random triangles appearing on the screen usually correspond to overheating problems on the GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) itself, while white, flashing dots appearing randomly (usually in groups) on the screen often mean that the card's RAM (memory) is overheating. It is common to run into one of those problems when overclocking graphics cards. Showing both symptoms at the same time usually means that the card is severely pushed beyond its heat/speed/voltage limits. If seen at normal speed, voltage and temperature, they may indicate faults with the card itself.

Some overclockers use a hardware voltage modification where a potentiometer is applied to the video card to manually adjust the voltage. This results in much greater flexibility, as overclocking software for graphics cards is rarely able to freely adjust the voltage. Voltage mods are very risky and may result in a dead video card, especially if the voltage modification ("voltmod") is applied by an inexperienced individual. A pencil volt mod refers to changing a resistor's value on the graphics card by drawing across it with a graphite pencil. This results in a change of GPU voltage. It is also worth mentioning that adding physical elements to the video card immediately voids the warranty (even if the component has been designed and manufactured with overclocking in mind, and has the appropriate section in its warranty).

Alternatives

Flashing and Unlocking are two popular ways to gain performance out of a video card, without technically overclocking.

Flashing refers to using the firmware of another card, based on the same core and design specs, to "override" the original firmware, thus effectively making it a higher model card; however, 'flashing' can be difficult, and sometimes a bad flash can be irreversible. Sometimes stand-alone software to modify the firmware files can be found, i.e. NiBiTor, (GeForce 6/7 series are well regarded in this aspect). It is not necessary to acquire a firmware file from a better model video card (although it should be said that the card in which firmware is to be used should be compatible, i.e. the same model base, design and/or manufacture process, revisions etc.). For example, video cards with 3D accelerators (the vast majority of today's market) have two voltage and speed settings - one for 2D and one for 3D - but were designed to operate with three voltage stages, the third being somewhere in the middle of the aforementioned two, serving as a fallback when the card overheats or as a middle-stage when going from 2D to 3D operation mode. Therefore, it could be wise to set this middle-stage prior to "serious" overclocking, specifically because of this fallback ability - the card can drop down to this speed, reducing by a few (or sometimes a few dozen, depending on the setting) percent of its efficiency and cool down, without dropping out of 3D mode (and afterwards return to the desired full-speed clock and voltage settings).

Some cards also have certain abilities not directly connected with overclocking. For example, NVIDIA's GeForce 6600GT (AGP flavor) features a temperature monitor (used internally by the card), which is invisible to the user in the 'vanilla' version of the card's BIOS. Modifying the BIOS (taking it out, reprogramming the values and flashing it back in) can allow a 'Temperature' tab to become visible in the card driver's advanced menu.

Unlocking refers to enabling extra pipelines and/or pixel shaders. The 6800LE, the 6800GS and 6800 (AGP models only) and Radeon X800 Pro VIVO were some of the first cards to benefit from unlocking. While these models have either 8 or 12 pipes enabled, they share the same 16x6 GPU core as a 6800GT or Ultra, but may not have passed inspection when all their pipelines and shaders were unlocked. In more recent generations, both ATI and Nvidia have laser cut pipelines to prevent this practice..

It is important to remember that while pipeline unlocking sounds very promising, there is absolutely no way of determining if these 'unlocked' pipelines will operate without errors, or at all (this information is solely at the manufacturer's discretion). In a worst-case scenario, the card may not start up ever again, resulting in a 'dead' piece of equipment. It is possible to revert to the card's previous settings, but it involves manual firmware flashing using special tools and an identical but original firmware chip.

See also

• CPU locking
• CPU-Z
• Overvolting
• Pentium OverDrive
• UNIVAC I Overdrive, 1952 unofficial modification
• SuperPi
• Underclocking
• Undervolting

References

External links

• Beginners Overclocking Guide - CPUs and RAM
• CPU Overclock Calculator
• Overclock your RAM
• How to overclock a PC - WikiHow
• Overclocking Tutorial - Step by Step
• Newbie Overclocking Guide -by Xbitlabs
• PCFlip
• Overclock.net - Overclocking.net
• Overclockersonline.net - Overclockers Online
• The Overclocker - The world's overclocking community magazine

Overclocking/Benchmark databases

• Futuremark Benchmark Database
• Hwbot: specifications and benchmarks of computer hardware
• Comprehensive CPU OC Database
• PassMark CPU OC Chart
• ripping.org CPU Database

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