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Halifax Explosion
The Halifax Explosion occurred on Thursday, December 6, 1917, when the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, was devastated by the huge detonation of a French cargo ship, fully loaded with wartime explosives, that had accidentally collided with a ship set for Belgium in "The Narrows" section of the Halifax Harbour. Approximately 2,000 people (mostly Canadians) were killed by debris, fires, or collapsed buildings, and it is estimated that over 9,000 people were injured.[1] This is still one of the world's largest man-made, conventional explosions to date. At 8:40 in the morning, Mont-Blanc, a French cargo ship which was chartered by the French government to carry munitions, collided with the unloaded Norwegian ship Imo (pronounced E-mo), chartered by the Commission for Relief in Belgium to carry relief supplies. Mont-Blanc caught fire ten minutes after the collision and exploded about twenty-five minutes later (at 9:04:35 AM).[2] All buildings and structures covering nearly two square kilometres along the adjacent shore of the exploded ship were obliterated, including those in the neighbouring communities of Richmond and Dartmouth.[1] The explosion caused a tsunami in the harbour, and a pressure wave of air that snapped trees, bent iron rails, demolished buildings, grounded vessels, and carried fragments of the Mont-Blanc for kilometres.
Halifax in wartime
View of Halifax before the 1917 explosion looking toward the industrial north end from downtown Prelude to disasterOn December 1, 1917, Mont-Blanc, a 3,121-ton, 97.5 metre long by 13.7 metre wide freighter, departed New York City, USA to join a war convoy assembling in the Bedford Basin (Halifax), Canada. The vessel did not fly warning flags for its dangerous cargo in order to avoid being targeted by the German Imperial Navy, which had sunk many of the newer, faster ships, leaving less than ideal vessels to aid in war efforts. It carried on board 2,653,115 kilograms (2,653 tonnes) of explosives. The cargo would have been valued at US$3,601,290 in 1917 (upwards of US$60 million today), and consisted of the following:
On December 5, Mont-Blanc, captained by Aimé Le Médec, arrived at the examination point off McNabs Island and requested permission to enter the harbour, but was too late. Halifax Harbour had two antisubmarine nets that were closed for the night at sundown. These nets prevented both submarines and surface ships from entering or leaving. These nets were in place during the war to prevent the Central Powers from attacking Entente shipping and reinforcements being sent to Europe - the primary threat being the German Imperial Navy's U-boat fleet. At the same time, Imo, a 5,043-ton, 131.5 metre long by 13.8 metre wide vessel, captained by Haakon From, was to sail for New York to pick up relief supplies destined for civilians in Belgium, but its coal supplier arrived late and it also missed the sunset cut-off time, and was stuck for the night inside the harbour, on the other side of the submarine nets. The Imo at the time carried no cargo. Collision and fireThe next morning, shortly after the harbour's opening around 8:30 AM on December 6, Imo attempted to depart through the starboard channel when it met an oncoming ship. At the time, two-way passage by vessels through the narrow section of the harbour (called "The Narrows" - connecting the Atlantic Ocean and outer harbour with the Bedford Basin) was unrestricted, provided that vessels followed established collision avoidance regulations. The two vessels agreed to pass on their incorrect sides (according to nautical regulations), with Imo steering to port. This was a convenience for the incoming ship, which was docking on the Halifax side of the harbour. By roughly 8:15 AM, Imo remained in the port channel as Stella Maris, a tugboat towing two barges, evaded Imo by remaining on the Halifax side of the harbour. As Imo departed through the port channel, Mont-Blanc was entering via the starboard channel. After a series of whistle blows communicated from both vessels indicating their intent to remain on course, Le Médec eventually ordered Mont-Blanc hard to port, sending the ship into the center channel. At the same time, Imo reversed its engines in order to stop, but the backward action of the propellers brought her to the center channel as well. The combination of last minute evasive maneuvers by both vessels sent them back on their collision course. At roughly 8:45 AM, Imo's prow struck and became lodged in the starboard bow of Mont-Blanc, sparking the benzol and picric acid. Imo attempted to pull back and dislodge, which likely generated further sparks. By now the barrels of benzol stored on the Mont-Blanc's deck were aflame. As the fire spread out of control, Mont-Blanc's crew were unable to reach fire-fighting equipment and, aware of their volatile cargo, quickly abandoned ship upon the captain's orders. Within 10 minutes, their two rowboats containing the 40-man crew reached safety on the Dartmouth side of the harbour as the burning ship continued to drift towards the Halifax shore. Any warnings shouted by the French speaking crew were not understood as they fled further inland away from the burning ship.[4][5][6] (The language of the Halifax area was English.) Other ships came to aid the burning Mont-Blanc. Notably, Stella Maris had begun an attempt to extinguish the ship's flames with its fire hose. Failing this, and unaware of the danger, the vessel made two attempts to tow the abandoned Mont-Blanc away from the docks. HMCS Niobe and HMS Highflyer also sent crews to assist. Hundreds of onlookers gathered on the shores of the harbour, watching as Mont-Blanc eventually drifted into Pier 6 on the Richmond waterfront, spreading the fire onto land, igniting some munitions cargo that was stored on the pier. West street (Station 2) members of the Halifax Fire Department, along with the first motorized fire engine in Canada, the Patricia, had arrived on the scene to combat the fire. Brunswick Street, Gottingen Street, and Quinpool Road stations all responded to the fire as well. Explosion and aftermathAt 9:04:35 AM, the cargo of Mont-Blanc exploded with more force than any man-made explosion before it, equivalent to roughly 3 kilotons of TNT. (Compare to atomic bomb Little Boy dropped in Hiroshima, which had an estimated power of 13 kilotons TNT equivalent.) The ship was instantly destroyed in the giant fireball that rose over 1.6 kilometres (1 mi) into the air, forming a large mushroom cloud. Shards of hot metal rained down across Halifax and Dartmouth. The force of the blast triggered a tsunami, which rose up as high as 18 metres above the harbour's high-water mark on the Halifax side, caused by the rapid displacement of harbour water in the vicinity of the blast, followed by water rushing back in towards the shore. The effects were likely compounded by the narrow section of the harbour. There was little information documented on this event as witnesses were generally stunned and injured as the wave washed ashore, though the wave contributed to the death toll, dragging many victims on the harbour front into the waters. Imo was lifted up onto the Dartmouth shore by the tsunami. A black rain of unconsumed carbon from the vessel fell over the city for roughly 10 minutes following the blast, coating survivors and structural debris in the black substance. 
View from the waterfront looking west from the ruins of the Sugar Refinery across the obliterated Richmond District several days after the explosion. The remains of Pier 6, ground zero of the explosion, is on the extreme right. 
A view across the devastation of Halifax two days after the explosion, looking toward the Dartmouth side of the harbour. The Imo can be seen aground on the far side of the harbour. Professor Howard Bronson of Dalhousie University later detailed that the disaster had damaged buildings and shattered windows as far away as Sackville and Windsor Junction, roughly 16 kilometres (10 mi) away. Buildings shook noticeably and items fell from shelves as far away as Truro and New Glasgow, 100 kilometres (62 mi) and 126 kilometres (78 mi) away respectively. The explosion was felt and heard in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, roughly 215 kilometres (135 mi) north, and as far away as North Cape Breton, 360 kilometres (225 mi) east. Fragments of Mont-Blanc rained down all over the city. A portion of Mont-Blanc's anchor shaft, weighing 517 kilograms (1140 lb) was thrown 3.78 kilometres (2.35 mi) west of the blast on the far side of the Northwest Arm, which is now part of a monument at the corner of Spinnaker Dr. and Anchor Dr., while a gun barrel landed in Dartmouth, over 5.5 kilometres (3.5 mi) east, near Albro Lake. A piece of wreckage was driven into the wall of St. Paul's Church, where it remains today. Rumoured second explosionA rumour of a second explosion had started roughly an hour after the first. Despite the high number of disciplined rescue workers, many of whom were military personnel, and although there are no records of an order to evacuate, soldiers reportedly had begun to clear the area with fear that smoke rising from the naval ammunitions magazine at Wellington Barracks was an impending second explosion. This site did store a large amount of explosive material and munitions, but the smoke/steam was a result of scattered coals being extinguished by personnel on site. Many rescue efforts were halted as masses of people fled to the high grounds and open areas of Citadel Hill, Point Pleasant Park and the Halifax Commons, under the order of uniformed men. Rescuers and victims alike were delayed until almost noon when the situation was cleared, although some rescue parties ignored the evacuation and kept working. In the chaos and confusion, fear of German attacks had become rampant, leaving many to believe that the initial blast was not an accident, further fueling the idea of a second explosion. BlizzardThe following day brought a blizzard which dropped 40 centimetres (16 in) of snow on the community. Those who remained trapped in rubble, the injured, or those who had not been found or tended to, were often left in the bitter cold, adding to the tragic losses. Rescuers were forced to work through the storm, and many people who were left homeless found shelter wherever they could. Houses left standing did not have windows after the blast, leaving survivors to use tar paper, carpets and other available materials to seal their homes from the elements. The snow, however, did aid firemen in ensuring any remaining fires were extinguished. This was apparently the biggest blizzard in that decade. Human loss and destruction
Explosion aftermath: Halifax's Exhibition Building The explosion killed more Nova Scotian residents than World War I itself. Detailed estimates showed that among those killed, 600 were under the age of 15, 166 were labourers, 134 were soldiers and sailors, 125 were craftsmen, and 39 were workers for the railway. 
Explosion aftermath According to estimates, roughly $35 million Canadian dollars in damages resulted (in 1917 dollars; adjusted for inflation, this is approximately CAD$500 million in 2007 dollars).[8] Communities affectedAlthough Halifax was hit the hardest and suffered the most damage, with the North End obliterated, several neighbouring communities and settlements also suffered casualties during and after the blast. DartmouthThe Dartmouth side of the harbour was not as densely populated as Halifax, and separated from the blast by the width of the harbour, but still suffered heavy damage. Estimates are that almost 100 people died on the Dartmouth side. Windows were shattered and many buildings were damaged or destroyed, including the Oland Brewery and parts of the Starr Manufacturing Company. Nova Scotia Hospital was the only hospital located on the Dartmouth side of the harbour, and treated many of the victims there. Mi'kmaq settlementThe small Mi'kmaq settlement located directly opposite Halifax, in Tuft's Cove (also known as Turtle Grove), was completely obliterated. Unfortunately, little information was recorded on the effects of the disaster on the First Nations community. The settlement is known to have dated back to the 1700s, and on November 6 was slated to be relocated as reservations were established through Indian reserve status lobbying. Fewer than 20 families resided in this community, and had not begun their move before the collision and fire drew the attention of onlookers around the harbour. Records show that 9 bodies were recovered, and the settlement was abandoned in the wake of the disaster. AfricvilleThe black community of Africville, located on the southern shores of the Bedford Basin, adjacent to the Halifax Peninsula, was spared the direct force of the blast by the raised ground to the south. However Africville's small and frail homes were heavily damaged by the explosion and families recorded the deaths of five residents.[9] Africville received little of the relief funds and none of the progressive reconstruction invested into other parts of the city after the explosion.[10] Heroism and rescue effortsMany individuals, groups and organizations contributed to the rescue and relief in the days, months and years following the disaster. Specific acts of heroism and bravery by individuals are detailed below. Vince ColemanThe death toll could have been worse if not for the self-sacrifice of an Intercolonial Railway dispatcher, P. Vincent (Vince) Coleman, operating at the Richmond Railway Yards. He and his co-worker learned of the danger from the burning Mont-Blanc from a sailor and began to flee. Coleman remembered, however, that an incoming passenger train from Saint John, New Brunswick was due to arrive at the rail yard within minutes, and he returned to his post to send out urgent telegraph messages to stop the train. The train is believed to have heeded the warning and stopped a safe distance from the blast at Rockingham, saving the lives of about 300 railway passengers. Furthermore, Coleman's message was heard by other stations all along the Intercolonial Railway helping railway officials to respond immediately. The rescued train was later used to carry injured and homeless survivors to Truro, Nova Scotia. Coleman was killed at his post as the explosion ripped through the city. He is honoured as a hero and fixture in Canadian history, notably being featured in a "Heritage Minute" one-minute movie[11] and a display at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic. FiremenFiremen were among the first to respond to the disaster, rushing to Mont-Blanc to attempt to extinguish the blaze before the explosion even occurred. They also played an instrumental role in regaining control of the devastated city after the blast, with members arriving to assist from across Halifax, and by the end of the day from as far away as Springhill and Amherst, Nova Scotia, and Moncton, New Brunswick, via relief trains. Halifax's Fire Department at the time comprised 8 fire stations, 122 members (36 of whom were fully employed), 13 apparatus (1 of which was motorized), and roughly 30 horses. West Street's Station 2 was the first to arrive at pier 6 with the crew of the American LaFrance-built Patricia, the first motorized fire engine in Canada. They were responding to Box 83, the dockyard alarm at the corner of Roome Street and Campbell Road (now Barrington Street), as Mont-Blanc drew near to its resting place at Pier 6. Although the dockyard alarms were routine for the department, today was different, as North End general storekeeper Constant Upham could see the serious nature of the fire from his home and called surrounding fire stations to advise them. Upham's store was on Campbell Road, directly in view of the burning ship, and as one of the few buildings at the time with a phone, he placed his call sometime after 8:45 that morning. Despite this warning, none of the firemen knew that the ship carried munitions. It was believed however, that the vessel's crew was still onboard, as West Street's Station 2, Brunswick Street's Station 1, Gottingen Street, and Quinpool Road's Station 5 responded to Upham's call. Fire Chief Edward P. Condon and Deputy Chief William P. Brunt, were next on the scene, arriving from Brunswick Street in the department's 1911 McLaughlin Roadster. The heat was overwhelming, and Chief Condon pulled the Box 83 alarm again. In the final moments before the explosion, hoses were being unrolled as the fire spread to the docks. Retired Hoseman John Spruin Sr. was on his way from Brunswick Street in a horse-drawn pumper, and Hoseman John H. E. Duggan was traveling from Isleville Street's Station 7 with another horse-drawn firefighting wagon. None of the firemen knew the danger that they faced as 9:04 arrived, bringing about the explosion that obliterated the dockyard fire site. Fire Chief Edward Condon and Deputy Chief William Brunt were killed immediately along with crew members, Captain William T. Broderick, Captain G. Michael Maltus, Hoseman Walter Hennessey, and Hoseman Frank Killeen, of the Patricia. John Spruin and John Duggan were both struck and killed by shrapnel en route to the fire. Their horses were also killed instantly in the blast. Patricia hoseman Frank D. Leahy died on December 31, 1917 from his injuries. Nine members of the Halifax Fire Department lost their lives performing their duty that day. The only surviving member at the scene was Patricia driver Billy (William) Wells, who was in the vehicle at the time of the blast. He recounts the event for the Mail Star, October 6, 1967,
Notably, firefighter Albert Brunt also survived the blast, by chance, as he slipped while attempting to jump onto the Patricia as it rounded a corner on its way to the docks. A new pumper was purchased by the city and arrived just a few days after the explosion. The Patricia was later restored by the American LaFrance company for $6,000, who donated $1,500 to a fund for the families of the firemen. The families of firemen killed in the blast received $1,000 from the city (close to $15,000 in 2007 dollars), with the exception of one, who received $500. On the 75th anniversary of the Halifax Explosion, December 6, 1992, the Halifax Fire Department erected a monument at the current Station 4, at the corner of Lady Hammond Road and Robie Street, in honour of the fallen members who died fighting the fire on Mont-Blanc. Medical reliefAlmost immediately following the blast, Halifax hospitals began to overflow with the dead and injured. Anybody with medical training and experience, both military and civilian, found themselves tasked with the treatment of thousands. Military medical staff from various vessels in the harbour provided some of the first response teams and set up an improvised hospital ship aboard the coastal passenger ship SS Old Colony[12] , which was enroute from the U.S. to Britain for naval conversion, and which had been tied up in Halifax for repairs. Tied up along side for the duration was the USS von Steuben[13], a Troop Transport, and the USS Tacoma (CL-20), a Protected Cruiser that was returning to the U.S. from Convoy Duty across the Atlantic. Personnel from the three ships responded to the emergency immediately. Relief trains with doctors, nurses and supplies first arrived from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick towns a day and a half ahead of American relief. The first outside train arrived from Truro, Nova Scotia about noon, followed by a Dominion Atlantic Railway relief train from Kentville.[14] By nightfall, about a dozen trains had brought help including trains from Amherst, Moncton, New Brunswick and New Glasgow, Nova Scotia.[15] Later, American support was strong, particularly from Massachusetts, with support trains bringing doctors, nurses, orderlies and much needed supplies to the effort. A relief train left from Boston at 10:00 PM on the day of the explosion. Relentlessly chugging through wintry terrain, it was delayed by heavy snowfall but reached Halifax just over 30 hours later at 3:00 AM on December 8, unloading much needed food, water, medical supplies, and some aid workers to relieve the Nova Scotia medical staff, many of whom had worked without rest since the morning of the explosion. Many of the emergency procedures involved eye injuries and removals, lacerations, or amputations, with operating rooms and medical wards working around the clock for several days. Medical students at Dalhousie University were enlisted to assist, even those who had just begun studying in September. The Red Cross, Salvation Army and Saint John Ambulance all focused their resources to the disaster, and away from the war overseas. The lack of coordinated pediatric care in such a disaster was noted by a surgeon from Boston named William Ladd who had arrived to help. His insights from the explosion are generally credited with inspiring him to pioneer the specialty of pediatric surgery in North America.[16] FacilitiesHalifax at the time had four public hospitals, four military hospitals, and seven private hospitals. The most important were Victoria General Hospital and Camp Hill Hospital, taking many of the critically injured while redirecting minor injuries to other sites and temporary facilities. Victoria General Hospital was the largest civilian hospital in Halifax at that period. Three operating rooms ran non-stop after the explosion, treating the critically injured. The original structure no longer exists, as the current Victoria Building replaced it in 1948. However, the institution still exists today as the VG site, part of the QEII Health Sciences Centre, a 10 building group of facilities formed in 1996. Located behind Citadel Hill, Camp Hill Hospital was a military hospital completed earlier the same year. It was built quickly in order to treat the large number of wounded returning from the war in Europe. It was completed only a few months before the explosion, and treated 1,400 wounded in the first 24 hours after the blast. Archibald MacMechan, who collected many accounts of the disaster, describes Camp Hill Hospital as, Camp Hill Hospital was also administratively absorbed into the QEII Health Sciences Centre, and none of its original facilities exist today. Its grounds now comprise the Halifax Infirmary site of the QEII, including the Camp Hill Veterans' Memorial Building, the Abbie J. Lane Memorial Building, and the new Halifax Infirmary Building. Also, the Hospital for the Insane, also known as Mount Hope helped handle the casualties on the Dartmouth side of the harbour. Having opened in 1859, Mount Hope was designed to support 250 patients when completed. It was renamed to the Nova Scotia Hospital in the early 1900s. It accommodated 200 patients following the blast. The hospital still exists today as part of the Capital Health District Authority, and is a fully accredited teaching facility affiliated with Dalhousie University. Popular culture
Memorial Bell Tower was erected in Halifax as a memorial to the lives lost or changed forever by the Halifax Explosion More recently, the novel A Wedding in December (2005) by Anita Shreve has a story-within-the-story set in Halifax at the time of the explosion. The explosion is also referred to in some detail in John Irving's novel Until I Find You (2005) as well as Ami McKay's bestselling The Birth House (2006). Ami McKay includes a passage in which protagonist Dora Rare travels to Halifax to offer her midwifery skills to mothers who go into labour after the explosion. Keith Ross Leckie scripted a mini-series entitled Shattered City: The Halifax Explosion (2003), which took the title but has no relationship to Janet Kitz's acclaimed non-fiction book Shattered City: The Halifax Explosion and the Road to Recovery (1989). The mini-series follows soldier Charlie Collins through a romantic affair and his recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder. The movie exploited computer technology in order to achieve impressive special effects on a relatively small, by international standards, budget of $10 million. However the media and historians criticized distortions and inaccuracies in the film. One aspect which was criticized was the representation of German spies in the city; Jim Lotz's The Sixth of December (1981) also toys with the idea Halifax was home to a network of enemy spies during the war. Joel Plaskett references the event in the song "Truth Be Told" on the album La De Da (2005). The Canadian rapper Classified references the Halifax Explosion in his song "The Maritimes" saying:
ChristmasEvery Christmas since 1971, Nova Scotia has donated a large Christmas tree to the City of Boston in thanks and remembrance for the help the Boston Red Cross and the Massachusetts Public Safety Committee provided immediately after the disaster. The annual gift began with the Christmas tree grower's association and was later taken over by the Nova Scotia Government. The tree is Boston's official Christmas tree and is lit near Copley Square throughout the holiday season. Knowing its symbolic importance to both cities, the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources has specific guidelines for selecting the tree. It must be an attractive balsam fir, white spruce or red spruce, 12 to 16 metres (40 to 50 ft) tall, healthy with good colour, medium to heavy density, uniform and symmetrical and easy to access.[17] For the Christmas tree extension specialist the "tree can be elusive, the demands excessive, and the job requires remembering the locations of the best specimens in the province and persuading the people who own them to give them up for a pittance." Most donors are "honoured to give up their trees... [and] most will gladly watch their towering trees fall" since everyone knows the reason it is being sent to Boston. Nova Scotian "children study [the explosion] in school and they know Boston was one of the first responders, and really a lifesaver." The trees "don't often come from tree farms, but from open land where they can grow tall and full." It is so important to the people of Nova Scotia that "people have cried over it, argued about it, even penned song lyrics in its honor."[18] See also
Further reading
References
The Halifax Explosion in popular media
External links
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