The Dominican Republic (Spanish: República Dominicana, ) is a nation located in the Caribbean region. It shares the island of Hispaniola with Haiti. Part of the Greater Antilles archipelago, Hispaniola lies west of Puerto Rico and east of Cuba and Jamaica.^[1] Its western third is the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are occupied by two countries, Saint Martin being the other.

The Dominican Republic is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas; its capital Santo Domingo was also the first colonial capital in the Americas.^[2] It is the site of the first cathedral,^[3] university, European-built road, European-built fortress, and more.

For most of its independent history, the nation experienced political turmoil and unrest, suffering through many non-representative and tyrannical governments. Since the death of military dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina in 1961, the Dominican Republic has moved toward a liberal economic model which has made it the largest economy in the region and a representative democracy.

History

The Taínos

Hispaniola was inhabited by the Taínos, an Arawakan-speaking people who may have arrived around A.D. 600, displacing earlier inhabitants.^[4] The Taínos called the island Kiskeya or Quisqueya, meaning "highest land", as well as Haití or Aytí, and Bohio.^[5] They engaged in farming and fishing,^[6] and hunting and gathering.^[4] There are widely varying estimates of the population of Hispaniola in 1492, including one hundred thousand,^[7] three hundred thousand,^[4] and 400,000 to 2 million.^[8] By 1492 Hispaniola was divided into five chiefdoms.^[9] Within a few short years following the arrival of European explorers the population of Tainos had declined due to a change in their lifestyle, the introduction of diseases such as smallpox, and enslavement. In the mid-1700's in "The Globe encyclopaedia of universal information" it accounted for 21,000 pure indigenous natives that still lived in the Dominican Republic.^[10] The last record of pure Taino natives in the country was from a 1864 account by a Spaniard soldier who wrote of Tainos shooting their soldiers and fleeing, during the restoration period. Their cave paintings can still be seen in a variety of caves around the country.^[11]

Spanish rule

Christopher Columbus landed at Môle Saint-Nicolas, in northwest present-day Haiti, on December 5, 1492, during his first voyage. He claimed the island for Spain and named it La Española. Nineteen days later his flagship the Santa Maria ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haitien. Columbus was forced to leave 39 men, who founded the settlement of La Navidad. He then moved east, exploring the northern coast of what is now the Dominican Republic, after which he returned to Spain. He sailed back to America three more times.

After initially friendly relations, the Taínos resisted the conquest. One of the earliest leaders to fight against the Spanish was the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua, in the southwest, who married Chief Caonabo of Maguana in the center and south of the island. She was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. Other notables who resisted include Chief Guacanagari, Chief Guamá, and Chief Hatuey, who later fled to Cuba and helped fight the Spaniards there. Chief Enriquillo fought victoriously against the Spaniards in the Baoruco Mountain Range, in the southwest, to gain freedom for himself and his people in a part of the island for a time.

By the late-1500s, the majority of Taíno people had died from the introduction of infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, mistreatment, suicide, the breakup of family unity, starvation,^[4] forced labor, torture, and war with the Spaniards. Most scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, infectious disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the indigenous people.^[12] The Taíno survived mostly in racially mixed form, and today most Dominicans have Taíno ancestry.^[13][14]

Some scholars believe that Bartolomé de las Casas exaggerated^[15] the Indian population decline in an effort to persuade King Carlos to intervene, and that encomenderos also exaggerated it, in order to receive permission to import more African slaves. Moreover, censuses of the time did not account for the number of Indians who fled into remote communities,^[13] where they often joined with runaway Africans, called cimarrones, producing zambos. There were also confusing issues with racial categorization, as Mestizos who were culturally Spanish were counted as Spaniards. In addition some Zambos were caterogized as black and some Indians as Mulattos^[13]

In 1496 Bartolomeo Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Nueva Isabela (New Isabella), now Santo Domingo, in the south of Hispaniola. It was one of the first Spanish settlements, and became Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World".

The Spaniards created a plantation economy on Hispaniola, particularly from the second half of the 16th century.^[7] The island became a springboard for European conquest of the Caribbean islands, called Antilles, and soon after, the American mainland.

For decades, Santo Domingo colony was the headquarters of Spanish colonial power in the New World. With the Spanish conquest of the mainland empires of the Aztecs and Incas, the importance of Hispaniola declined and Spain paid less attention to it. French bucaneers settled in the western part of the island. By the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain ceded that part of Hispaniola to France. With colonial settlement and the development of a plantation economy dependent on slave labor, it grew into the wealthy colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), with four times (500,000 vs. 125,000) greater population as Spanish Santo Domingo by the end of the 18th century. Enslaved Africans outnumbered whites by ten to one. ^[16]

French rule

France came to own the whole island in 1795, when by the Treaty of Basel Spain ceded Santo Domingo as a consequence of the French Revolutionary Wars. At the time, slaves led by Toussaint Louverture in the western part (Haiti) were in revolt against France. In 1801 Toussaint Louverture captured Santo Domingo from the French and took control of the entire island.

In 1802 an army sent by Napoleon captured Toussaint Louverture and sent him to France as prisoner. Toussaint Louverture's successors, and yellow fever, succeeded in expelling the French again from Saint-Domingue. The nation declared independence as Haiti in 1804.

France went on to recover Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1808, following Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule. With the aid of Great Britain (Spain's ally) and Haiti, ^[17] Santo Domingo was returned to Spanish control.^[18]

Ephemeral independence and Haitian rule

After a dozen years of Spanish rule and failed independence plots by various groups, former Spanish Lieutenant-Governor José Núñez de Cáceres declared the colony's independence as the state of Haití Español (Spanish Haiti) on November 30, 1821. He requested admission to Simón Bolívar's nation of Gran Colombia. But the new nation's independence was short-lived. Haitian forces, led by Jean-Pierre Boyer, invaded just nine weeks later in February 1822.^[19]

As Toussaint Louverture had done the first time, the Haitians abolished slavery. But they nationalized all public property; most private property, including all the property of landowners who had left in the wake of the invasion; much Church property; as well as all property belonging to the former rulers, the Spanish Crown. All levels of education suffered collapse; the university was shut down, as it was starved of resources and all Dominican men from 16 to 25-years-old were drafted into the Haitian army. Haiti imposed a "heavy tribute" on the Dominican people.^[20] Many whites fled Santo Domingo for Puerto Rico and Cuba ? both still under Spanish rule, Venezuela, and elsewhere.

Boyer changed the Dominican economic system to place more emphasis on cash crops to be grown on large plantations, reformed the tax system, and allowed foreign trade. But the new system was widely opposed by Dominican farmers, although it produced a boom in sugar and coffee production. Boyer's troops, which included many Dominicans, were unpaid, and had to "forage and sack" from Dominican civilians. In the end the economy faltered and taxation became more onerous. Rebellions occurred even by freed Dominican slaves, while Dominicans and Haitians worked together to oust Boyer from power. Anti?Haitian movements of several kinds ? pro?independence, pro?Spanish, pro?French, pro?British, pro?United States ? gathered force following the overthrow of Boyer in 1843.^[20]

Independence

In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria that sought pure and simple independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention.^[21] Matías Ramón Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez (the latter of partly African ancestry),^[22] despite not being among the founding members of Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. They are now hailed, together with Duarte, as the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. On February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios, as the members of La Trinitaria were known, declared independence from Haiti. They were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo who became general of the army of the nascent Republic and is known as "El Liberador". The Dominican Republic's first Constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled after the United States Constitution.^[6]

The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Threatening the nation's independence were renewed Haitian invasions occurring in 1844, 1845-49, 1849-55, and 1855-56.^[20]

Meanwhile, archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to another power: Santana favored Spain, and Báez the United States.

The voluntary colony and the Restoration republic

General Gregorio Luperón, Restoration Hero.

Political strife again prevailed in the years that followed; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. In 1869 it was the turn of Báez to act on his plan of annexing the country to the United States,^[19] with a payment of 1.5 million dollars by the U.S. as part of the deal, in order to alleviate the Dominican Republic's debts.^[24][6] U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant supported this plan, but the United States Senate refused on June 30, 1870,^[19] albeit by just one vote. One reason why President Grant supported the annexation was that he thought the former colony could provide a destination for freedmen to allow them to live in peace, free of harassment by Southern whites.^[25]

Ulises 'Lilís' Heureaux, President of the Dominican Republic 1882-84, 1886-99

Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. A new generation was then entirely in charge, with the passing of Santana (he died in 1864) and Báez from the scene. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s,^[26] which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux.

The new president was initially popular.^[27] He was, however, "a consummate dissembler", who put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state.^[27] Heureaux's rule became more despotic with time and he all the more unpopular.^[28][27] In 1899 he was assassinated. However, the unprecentedly long calm over which he had presided allowed for some improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized,^[29] and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants, both from the Old World and the New.

From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm and provincial leaders held much of the power. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay its debts, faced the threat of military intervention by France and other European powers' seeking repayment.

U.S. intervention

U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, in part to protect the vicinity of the Panama Canal, which was then under construction.^[27] He made a small military intervention to ward off the European powers, and proclaimed his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. In 1906 the Dominican Republic and the United States entered into a 50-year treaty giving control of customs administration to the United States.^[6] In exchange, the United States agreed to use the customs proceeds to help reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic,^[6] and assumed responsibility for said debt.^[27]

In 1914, the United States, due to extreme internal political instability in the Dominican Republic (inability to elect a president), expressed concern. It stated that a leader must be elected, or the United States would impose one.^[30] As a result, Ramón Báez Machado was elected provisional president on August 27, 1914.^[30] Presidential elections held on October 25 returned Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra to the presidency. Despite his victory, however, Jimenes felt impelled to appoint leaders and prominent members of the various political factions to positions in his government in an effort to broaden its support. The internecine conflicts that resulted had quite the opposite effect, weakening the government and the President and emboldening Secretary of War Desiderio Arias to take control of both the armed forces and the Congress. Arias compelled the Congress to impeach Jimenes for violation of the constitution and the laws. Although the United States ambassador offered military support to his government, Jimenes opted to step down on May 7, 1916.

Arias never assumed the presidency formally. The United States government decided to take more direct action. By this time, U.S. forces were occupying Haiti. The initial military administrator of Haiti, Rear Admiral William Caperton, had actually forced Arias to retreat from Santo Domingo by threatening the city with naval bombardment on May 13, 1916.

U.S. occupation

The 1916 occupation by U.S. Marines

Other effects of the occupation were positive. The Marines restored order throughout most of the republic (with the exception of the eastern region); the country's budget was balanced, its debt was diminished, and economic growth resumed. Infrastructure projects produced new roads that linked all the country's regions for the first time in its history. A professional military organization, the Dominican Constabulary Guard, replaced the partisan forces that had waged a seemingly endless struggle for power. Most Dominicans, however, greatly resented the loss of their sovereignty to foreigners, few of whom spoke Spanish or displayed much real concern for the welfare of the republic.

The most intense opposition to the occupation arose in the eastern provinces of El Seibo and San Pedro de Macorís. From 1917 to 1921, the United States forces battled a guerrilla movement in that area known as the gavilleros. The guerrillas enjoyed considerable support among the population, and they benefited from a superior knowledge of the terrain. The movement survived the capture and the execution of its leader, Vicente Evangelista, and some initially fierce encounters with the Marines. However, the gavilleros finally yielded to the occupying forces' superior firepower, air power (a squadron of six Curtis Jennies), and determined (often brutal) counter-insurgency methods.

After World War I, public opinion in the United States began to run against the occupation. U.S. President Warren G. Harding, who succeeded Woodrow Wilson in March 1921, had campaigned against the occupations of both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. In June 1921, United States representatives presented a withdrawal proposal, known as the Harding Plan, which called for Dominican ratification of all acts of the military government, approval of a loan of US$2.5 million for public works and other expenses, the acceptance of United States officers for the constabulary — now known as the Guardia Nacional (National Guard) — and the holding of elections under United States supervision.

Popular reaction to the plan was overwhelmingly negative. Moderate Dominican leaders, however, used the plan as the basis for further negotiations that resulted in an agreement allowing for the selection of a provisional president to rule until elections could be organized. Under the supervision of High Commissioner Sumner Welles, Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos assumed the provisional presidency on October 21, 1922.

In the presidential election of March 15, 1924, former President Horacio Vásquez Lajara handily defeated Francisco J. Peynado. Vásquez's Alliance Party (Partido Alianza) also won a comfortable majority in both houses of Congress. With his inauguration on July 13, control of the republic returned to Dominican hands. He gave the country six years of good government, in which political and civil rights were respected and the economy grew strongly, in an atmosphere of peace.^[31]

Trujillo era

Rafael Trujillo

The Dominican Republic was ruled by dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo from 1930 until his assassination in 1961. Trujillo ruled with an iron fist, persecuting anyone who opposed his regime. There was considerable economic growth during his rule, although a great deal of the wealth was taken by the dictator and other regime elements. He renamed many towns and provinces after himself and members of his family, including the capital city Santo Domingo, renamed Ciudad Trujillo (Trujillo City).

In 1937 Trujillo (who was himself one-quarter Haitian),^[32] in an event known as the Parsley Massacre or in the Dominican Republic as El Corte (The Cutting),^[33] ordered the Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. The Army killed an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitians over five days, from the night of October 2, 1937 through October 8, 1937. They cut down Haitians with machetes.^[32][19] The soldiers of Trujillo were said to interrogate anyone with dark skin, using the pronunciation of perejil (parsley) to tell Haitians from Dominicans.^[33] Critics alleged the massacre was an attempt to seize money and property from Haitians living on the border.^[34] As a result of the massacre, the Dominican Republic agreed to pay Haiti US $750,000, later reduced to $525,000.^[35][23]

For a long time, the US supported the Trujillo government, as did^[36] the Catholic Church, and the Dominican elite. This support persisted despite the assassinations of political opposition and the massacre of border Haitians. The US believed Trujillo was the lesser of two or more evils.^[33] Trujillo was assassinated on May 30, 1961 in Santo Domingo.

Post-Trujillo

A democratically elected government under leftist Juan Bosch took office in 1963, but was overthrown later in the year. After nineteen months of military rule, a pro-Bosch revolt took place in 1965. US Marines arrived in the Dominican Republic to restore order in Operation Powerpack, later to be joined by forces from the Organization of American States.^[37] They remained in the country for over a year and left after supervising elections won by Joaquín Balaguer, who had been Trujillo's last puppet president.

Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of civil liberties, presumably to prevent pro-Cuba or pro-communist parties from gaining power in the country. His rule was criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included construction of housing, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways and the massive Columbus' Lighthouse, completed in a subsequent tenure in 1992.

1978 to present

In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded in the presidency by opposition candidate Antonio Guzmán Fernández, of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). From 1978 to 1986, the Dominican Republic experienced a period of relative freedom and basic human rights. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986, and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, defeating PRD candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo. Both the national and international communities generally viewed these elections as a major fraud, leading to political pressure for Balaguer to step down. Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996, which was won by Bosch's Dominican Liberation Party for the first time, with Leonel Fernández as its candidate.

In 2000 Hipólito Mejía won the election when opposing candidates Danilo Medina and a very old Joaquín Balaguer decided not to force a runoff after Mejía got 49.8% of the votes. In 2004 Leonel Fernández was elected again, with 57% of the votes, defeating then-incumbent president Mejía.

In 2008, President Leonel Fernández was reelected with 53.83% of the vote against Miguel Vargas Maldonado of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD), a former minister under Hipólito Mejía's government, who achieved a 40.48%. Amable Aristy of Joaquin Balaguer's once prosperous Social Christian Reformist Party (Partido Reformista Social Cristiano) achieved a mere 4.59% of the vote. Other minority candidates, which include former Attorney General Guillermo Moreno from the Movement for Independence, Unity and Change (Movimiento Independencia, Unidad y Cambio aka MIUCA) and Social Christian Reformist Party (Partido Reformista Social Cristiano) former presidential candidate and defector Eduardo Estrella, obtained less than 1% of the vote.

Government and politics

Palacio Nacional in Santo Domingo.

The Dominican Republic has a multi-party political system with national elections every 2 years (alternating between presidential elections and congressional/municipal elections). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even numbered years not divisible by four. International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair. Elections are supervised by a Central Elections Board (JCE) of 9 members chosen for a four-year term by the newly elected Senate. JCE decisions on electoral matters are final.

Under the constitutional reforms negotiated after the 1994 elections, the 16-member Supreme Court of Justice is appointed by a National Judicial Council, which comprises the President, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non-governing-party member. One other Supreme Court Justice acts as secretary of the Council, a non-voting position. The Supreme Court has sole authority over managing the court system and in hearing actions against the president, designated members of his cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session.

The Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts and chooses members of lower courts. Each of the 31 provinces is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Mayors and municipal councils to administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo) are elected at the same time as congressional representatives.^[38]

Politics

The Dominican Republic holds elections every four years at the congressional levels as well as every four years at the presidential levels. The country becomes highly politicized, as millions of dollars are spent in propaganda and campaigning. The political system is characterized by clientelism, which has corrupted the system throughout the years.^[39]

There are many political parties and interest groups and, new in this scenario, civil organizations. The three major parties are the conservative Social Christian Reformist Party (Spanish: Partido Reformista Social Cristiano [PRSC]), in power 1966–78 and 1986–96; the social democratic Dominican Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Dominicano [PRD]), in power in 1963, 1978–86, and 2000–04); and the increasingly conservative Dominican Liberation Party (Spanish: Partido de la Liberación Dominicana [PLD]), in power 1996–2000 and since 2004.

The presidential elections of 2008 were held on May 16, 2008, with incumbent Leonel Fernandez winning with 53% of the vote.^[40] This would be Fernández's third, and his second consecutive, term. Fernández and the PLD are credited with a number of initiatives that have moved the country forward technologically, with the completion in 2008 of the Metro Railway ("El Metro") in the Dominican Republic, although this has yet to be made available for public use, despite its supposed completion.

Name

For most of its history (up to independence) the colony was known by the name of its present capital, Santo Domingo. At present, it is one of the few countries in the world with a demonym-based description serving as a name. For example, the French Republic is known as France, the American republic is known as the United States of America, but the Dominican Republic has no such equivalent.

Provinces and municipalities

The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces. Additionally, the national capital, Santo Domingo, is contained within its own Distrito Nacional (National District).

The provinces are divided into municipalities (municipios; singular municipio). They are the second–level political and administrative subdivisions of the country.

Provinces of the Dominican Republic.

Azua Bahoruco Barahona Dajabón Distrito Nacional Duarte Elías Piña El Seibo Espaillat Hato Mayor Hermanas Mirabal Independencia

La Altagracia La Romana La Vega María Trinidad Sánchez Monseñor Nouel Monte Cristi Monte Plata Pedernales Peravia Puerto Plata Samaná Sánchez Ramírez

San Cristóbal San José de Ocoa San Juan San Pedro de Macorís Santiago Santiago Rodríguez Santo Domingo Valverde

* The national capital, also known as Distrito Nacional (D.N.), is the city of Santo Domingo.

Geography

Map of the Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic is situated on the eastern part of the second-largest island in the Greater Antilles, Hispaniola. The Dominican Republic shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio with Haiti. The whole country measures an area of 48,730 km² (or 48,921 km²),^[41] making it the second largest country in the Antilles, after Cuba.^[1] The country's capital and greatest metropolitan area, Santo Domingo, is located on the southern coast.

To the north, at a distance between 100 and 200 km, are three extensive, largely submerged banks, which geographically are a southeast continuation of the Bahamas: Navidad Bank, Silver Bank and Mouchoir Bank. Navidad Bank and Silver Bank have been officially claimed by the Dominican Republic.

The country's mainland has four important mountain ranges. The most northerly of these ranges is the Cordillera Septentrional ("Northern Mountain Range"), which extends from the northwestern coastal town of Monte Cristi, near the Haitian border, to the Samaná Peninsula in the east, running parallel to the Atlantic coast. The highest range in the Dominican Republic — indeed, in the whole of the West Indies — is the Cordillera Central ("Central Mountain Range") (in Haiti known as the Massif du Nord). It gradually bends southwards and finishes near the town of Azua de Compostela on the Caribbean coast. The Cordillera Central is home to the four highest peaks in the West Indies: Pico Duarte (3,098 m / 10,164 ft above sea level), La Pelona (3,094m), La Rucilla (3,049m) and Pico Yaque (2,760m).

Bust of Duarte on top of Pico Duarte, with La Pelona in the background.

There are other minor mountain ranges, such as the Cordillera Oriental ("Eastern Mountain Range"), Sierra Martín García, Sierra de Yamasá and Sierra de Samaná.

With mountain ranges running parallel to each other, the Dominican Republic boasts a number of valleys and plains. In between the Central and Septentrional mountain ranges lies the rich and fertile Cibao valley. This major valley is home to the city of Santiago de los Caballeros and to most of the farming areas in the nation. Rather less productive is the semi-arid San Juan Valley, south of the Cordillera Central and extending westward into Haiti. Still more arid is the Neiba Valley, tucked between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Bahoruco. This valley is also known in Haiti as the Cul-de-Sac. Much of the land in the Enriquillo Basin is below sea level, with a hot, arid, desert-like environment. There are other smaller valleys in the mountains such as the Constanza, Jarabacoa, Villa Altagracia and Bonao valleys.

Cayo Levantado in Samana Bay is one of the many cays in the D.R.

There are many small offshore islands and cays that are part of the Dominican territory. The two largest islands near shore are Saona in the southeast and Beata in the southwest.

The Llano Costero del Caribe ("Caribbean Coastal Plain") is the largest of the plains in the Dominican Republic. Stretching north and east of Santo Domingo, it contains many sugar plantations in the savannahs that are common here. West of Santo Domingo its width is reduced to 10 km as it hugs the coast, finishing at the mouth of the Ocoa River. Another large plain is the Plena de Azua ("Azua Plain"), a very dry region in the Azua Province.

A few other small coastal plains are in the northern coast and in the Pedernales Peninsula.

South shore of Lake Enriquillo, looking northward to the Sierra de Neiba

Four major rivers drain the numerous mountains of the Dominican Republic. The Yaque del Norte carries excess water down from the Cibao Valley and empties into Monte Cristi Bay. Likewise, the Yuna River serves the Vega Real and empties into Samaná Bay. Drainage of the San Juan Valley is provided by the San Juan River, tributary of the Yaque del Sur, which empties into the Caribbean. The Artibonito is the longest river of Hispaniola and flows into Haiti. The Yaque del Norte is the longest and most important Dominican river.

There are many lakes and coastal lagoons; the largest lake is Lago Enriquillo, a saline lake at 40 m below sea level, the lowest point in the West Indies. Other important lakes are Laguna de Rincón or Cabral, with freshwater, and Laguna de Oviedo, a lagoon with brackish water.

Climate

A beach on Saona Island

The country is a tropical, maritime nation. Wet season is from May to November, and periodic hurricanes between June and November. Most rain falls in the northern and eastern regions. The average rainfall is 1346 mm, with extremes of 2500 mm in the northeast and 500 mm in the west. The main annual temperature ranges from 21 °C in the mountainous regions to 25 °C on the plains and the coast. The average temperature in Santo Domingo in January is 25 °C and 30 °C in July. Nonetheless, the highest mountaintops are covered in pine forests and have temperatures that can go several degrees below freezing during winter nights.

Environmental issues

Bajos de Haina, west of Santo Domingo, was included on the Blacksmith Institute's list of the world's 10 most polluted places, released in October 2006, due to lead poisoning by a battery recycling smelter closed in 1999. As the site never was cleaned up, children continue to be born with high lead levels causing learning disabilities, impaired physical growth and kidney damage.^[42][43]

Symbols

Some of the important symbols include the flag of the Dominican Republic, the coat of arms, and the national anthem, titled Himno Nacional. The flag has a large white cross that divides it into four quarters. Two quarters are red and two are blue. Red represents the blood shed by the liberators. Blue expresses God's protection over the nation. The white cross symbolizes the struggle of the liberators to bequeath future generations a free nation. An alternate interpretation is that blue represents the ideals of progress and liberty, whereas white symbolizes peace and union amongst Dominicans.^[44] In the center of the cross is the Dominican coat of arms, in the same colors as the national flag.

The national flower is the flower of the West Indies Mahogany^[45] The national bird is the Cigua Palmera or Palmchat.^[46]

Economy

Recent years

Santo Domingo(D.N), the capital of the Republic and it's biggest city.

The Dominican Republic is the largest economy in the Central American and Caribbean region. It is a lower middle-income^[47] developing country primarily dependent on natural resources and government services. Although the service sector has recently overtaken agriculture as the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and Free Trade Zones), agriculture remains the most important sector in terms of domestic consumption and is in second place, behind mining, in terms of export earnings. Real estate tourism alone accounted for $1.5 billion in annual earnings.^[48] Free Trade Zone earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. Remittances ("remesas") from Dominicans living abroad are estimated to be more than $2 billion dollars per year.

Sector of Piantini

Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the gross domestic product (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of moderate growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered a recession. This recession followed the collapse of the second-largest commercial bank of the country (Baninter), linked to a major incident of fraud valued at $3.5 billion during the administration of President Hipolito Mejia (2000-2004). The Baninter fraud had a devastating effect on the Dominican economy, with GDP dropping by 1% in 2003 while inflation ballooned by over 27%. All defendants, including the star of the trial, Ramon Baez Figueroa, were found guilty and convicted, save one subpoena which failed to be delivered upon the United States denial of extradition.

Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves. The Dominican Republic is current on foreign private debt, and has agreed to pay arrears of about $130 million to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Commodity Credit Corporation.

According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked #71 in the world for resource availability, # 79 for human development, and #14 in the world for resource mismanagement. These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor.

Santiago de los Caballeros, the second largest city in the country

The Dominican Republic has become a trans-shipment point for South American drugs to Europe as well as the United States and Canada.^[1] Money laundering is favored by Colombian drug cartels via the Dominican Republic for the ease of illicit financial transactions.^[1]

Santiago De Los Caballeros; La Trinitaria, area of increasing development.

Santo Domingo, the capital of the Republic is the source of most of is GDP and has become one of the leading cities of the Caribbean. The biggest tourist center in the country is the region of Bávaro.

Currency

The Dominican peso (DOP) is the national currency of the country, although US dollars (USD) and euros (EUR) are accepted at most tourist sites. The peso was worth the same as the USD until the 1980s, but has depreciated. The exchange rate in 1993 was 14.00 pesos per USD and 16.00 pesos in 2000, but it jumped to 53.00 pesos per USD in 2003. In 2004, the exchange rate was back down to around 31.00 pesos per USD.

The U.S. dollar is implicated in almost all commercial transactions of the Dominican Republic; such dollarization is common in high inflation economies. On February 2005, 1.32 USD = one ? = 29 DR pesos; in October 2005, 1.19 USD = one ? = 32 DR pesos. As of September 2007 the value of the peso is 1 USD=0.7006 EUR=33.430 DOP.^[51][52]

Tourism

Tourism is fueling the Dominican Republic's economic growth. For example, the contribution of travel and tourism to employment is expected to rise from 550,000 jobs in 2008 ? 14.4% of total employment or 1 in every 6.9 jobs ? to 743,000 jobs ? 14.2% of total employment or 1 in every 7.1 jobs by 2018.^[53]With the construction of Projects like Cap Cana, and San Souci Port in Santo Domingo the Dominican Republic expects increased touristic activity in the next upcoming year. Ecotourism has been a topic increasingly important in the nation with towns like Jarabacoa, and locations like the Pico Duarte becoming more significant in attempts to increase direct benefits from tourist.

Demographics

Population

The population of Dominican Republic in 2008 was estimated by the Joshua Project and the United Nations at 9,905,000,^[54][55] which placed it as number 82 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2006 approximately 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 35% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 103 males for every 100 females in the country in 2007.^[1] According to the UN, the annual population growth rate for 2006?2007 is 1.5%, with the projected population for the year 2015 at 10,121,000.

It was estimated by the Dominican government that the population density in 2007 was 192 per km² (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas.^[56] The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country. The capital city, Santo Domingo, had a population of 3,014,000 in 2007. Other important cities are Santiago de los Caballeros (pop. 756,098), La Romana (pop. 250,000), San Pedro de Macorís, San Francisco de Macorís, San Felipe de Puerto Plata, and Concepción de la Vega. According to the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000?2005 was 2.3%.^[57]

Ethnic composition

Dominican girls at carnival in Taíno garments and makeup (2005)

According to the CIA World Fact Book, the ethnic composition of the Dominican population is 73% mixed race, 16% white and 11% black.^[1] The mixed population is a racial mixture of either White, Black, and/or Taino heritage. ^[13] Other ethnic groups in the Dominican Republic include Haitians, Germans, Italians, French, Spaniards, and Americans. A smaller yet significant presence of East Asians (primarily ethnic Chinese and Japanese) and Middle Easterners, primarily Lebanese and Jews can be found throughout the population.

Racial issues

As elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, the original Spanish colony of Hispaniola employed a social system known as casta, wherein Peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) occupied the highest echelon. These were followed, in descending order of status, by: criollos, castizos, mestizos, mulattoes, Indians, zambos, and lastly, black slaves.^[58][59] The stigma of these social strata persisted for many years, reaching its culmination in the Trujillo regime, as the dictator used racial persecution and nationalistic fervor against Haitians.^[60][33]

According to a study by the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute, about 90% of the contemporary Dominican population has African ancestry.^[61] Most Dominicans self-identify as being of mixed-race rather than black in contrast to African identity movements in the United States. A variety of terms are used to represent a range of skintones depending on ancestry such as "morena" (brown), "canela" (red/brown), "india" (Indian), "blanca oscura" (dark white), and "trigueño" (wheat colored),^[62] among others.

Many have claimed that this represents a reluctance to self-identify with African descent and the culture of the freed slaves. According to Dr. Miguel Anibal Perdomo, professor of Dominican Identity and Literature at Hunter College in New York City, "There was a sense of 'deculturación' among the African slaves of Hispaniola. [There was] an attempt to erase any vestiges of African culture from the Dominican Republic. We were, in some way, brainwashed and we've become westernized."^[63]

However, this view is not universal, as many also claim that Dominican culture is simply different and rejects the racial categorizations of other regions. Ramona Hernández, director of the Dominican Studies Institute at City College of New York asserts that the terms were originally an act of defiance in a time when being mulatto was stigmatized. "During the Trujillo regime, people who were dark skinned were rejected, so they created their own mechanism to fight it." She went on to explain, "When you ask, 'What are you?' they don't give you the answer you want ... saying we don't want to deal with our blackness is simply what you want to hear."^[64] The Dominican Republic is not unique in this respect either. In a 1976 census survey conducted in Brazil, respondents described their skin color in 136 distinct terms.^[64][65]

Religion

The Dominican Republic is almost uniformly Christian. More than 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, mostly Roman Catholicism, followed by a growing contingent of Protestant groups such as Seventh-day Adventist, Jehovah's Witnesses and Pentecostals. Recent but small scale immigration has brought other religions, which make up small percentages of the population: Spiritist: 2.2%, Mormons: 1.0%, Buddhist: 0.10%, Bahá'í: 0.07%, Muslim: 0.02%, Jewish: 0.01%, and Chinese Folk Religion: 0.01%.^[66].

Roman Catholicism was introduced by Columbus and Spanish missionaries. Religion wasn?t really the foundation of their entire society, as it was in other parts of the world at the time, and most of the population didn?t attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, most of the education in the country was based upon the Catholic religion, as the Bible was required in the curriculum in all public schools. Children would use religious based dialogue when greeting a relative or parent. For example: a child would say ?Bless me, mother?, and the mother would reply ?May God bless you?. Most Dominicans are Roman Catholic.

The nation has two patroness saints: Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia (Our Lady Of High Grace) is the patroness of the Dominican people, and Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes (Our Lady Of Mercy) is the patroness of the Dominican Republic.

Eventually the Catholic Church began to lose popularity in the late 1800s. This was due to a lack of funding, priests, and support programs. During the same time, the Protestant evangelical movement began to gain support. Religious tension between Catholics and Protestants in the country has tended to be minimal.

There has always been religious freedom throughout the entire country. Not until the 1950s were restrictions were placed upon churches by Trujillo. Letters of protest were sent against the mass arrests of government adversaries. Trujillo began a campaign against the church and planned to arrest priests and bishops who preached against the government. This campaign ended before it was even put into place, with his assassination.

Judaism appeared in the Dominican Republic in the late 1930s. During World War II, a group of Jews escaping Nazi Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and founded the city of Sosua. It has remained the center of the Jewish population since.^[67]

Education

Primary education is officially free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 14, although those who live in isolated areas have limited access to schooling. Primary schooling is followed by a two-year intermediate school and a four-year secondary course, after which a diploma called the bachillerato (high school diploma) is awarded. Relatively few lower-income students succeed in reaching this level due to financial hardships and limitation due to location. Most wealthier students choose to attend private schools, which are frequently sponsored by religious institutions. Some public and private vocational education is available, particularly in the field of agriculture, but this too reaches only a tiny percentage of the population.^[68]

Health statistics

In 2007 the Dominican Republic had a birth rate of 22.91 per 1000, and a death rate of 5.32 per 1000.^[1] Dengue and malaria are endemic to the country.^[69] There is currently a mission based in the United States to combat the AIDS rate in the Dominican Republic.^[70]

Immigration

A border watch tower to control illegal immigration from Haiti located in the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic

During the first decades of the 20th century, many Chinese, Arabs (primarily from Lebanon and Syria), Japanese and to a lesser degree Koreans settled in the country, descendants of agricultural laborers and merchants. Waves Of Chinese immigrants arrived and worked mines and rairoads, the latter waves were of immigrants fleeing the PLA. The current population consists of a total of 15,000 Chinese. The Arab Community is also rising at an increasing rate estimates are at 3,400. Japanese Immigrants who mostly work in the bussines districts and markets are at an estimate of 1,900 living in the country. The Korean presence is minor but evident at a Population of 500. In addition the descendents of immigrants who came from St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Antigua, St. Vincent, Monserrat and Tortola to work in sugarcane platations and Docks and settled in the cities of San Pedro de Macoris and Puerto Plata along with families from Martinique and Guadeloupe who settled there in the 1900's known and referred to as Cocolo are believed to number 28,000 of the population. Immigration from Europe and the United States is at an all time hight, according to the Joshua Project and BBC 1,400 British reside on the island in addition to 800 Germans, 4,000 Italians (Unofficially, the number is estimated to be as high as 40,000), 1,900 French, 88,000 Spaniards and 80,000 Americans.^[74][75][76] The town of Sosúa has many Jews who immigrated before or during World War II. The country is now home to 100 Jews.^{[77][78][79][80]}

With recent decades of unrest and poverty in Haiti immigration from Haiti has increased once again. Some Haitian immigrants arrive in the Dominican Republic illegally and work at low-paying, unskilled labor jobs, including construction work, household cleaning, and in sugar plantations.^[81] Current estimates put the Haitian-born population in the Dominican Republic as high as 1 million.^[82] Working conditions on these sugar plantations have caused controversy, including allegations that they border on slavery.^[83] Moreover, the children of illegal Haitian immigrants are denied citizenship^[81][84] and basic health care,^[85] and there are frequent physical attacks and roundups on adult immigrants.^[86] Some Dominican and Haitian officials deny such accusations of slavery, with the Haitian ambassador Fritz Cineas stating, "I still have not received any complaint of violation of human rights against the Haitian immigrants in the country."^[87] However, the President of the Dominican Republic, Leonel Fernández, stated publicly during a seminar on immigration policy in 2005 that collective expulsions of Haitians were carried out "in an abusive and inhuman way."^[88] Selective enforcement of deportation rules is much criticized in Haiti. Some critics say that "the Dominicans could help heal many of Haiti's open political wounds by extraditing back to Haiti many of the criminals of the 1991 coup d'état and the Duvalier dictatorship who enjoy de facto political asylum in the Dominican Republic."^[89] When asked for a response to the current situation, Fernandez stated, "There must exist an extradition treaty between the Dominican Republic and Haiti, but there isn't one between our two countries."^[89]

Illegal Haitian Immigration

Haiti, with nearly as many people but half the land area, is much poorer than the Dominican Republic. Dictatorships failed to provide for education and training, political unrest kept the country in turmoil, and population pressure through subsistence farming has stripped the landscape. In 2002 less than half of the Haitian population had formal jobs; in 2003 nearly half of the Haitian population was illiterate, and 80% of all Haitians were living poor and in poverty.^[90] Facing stark prospects for survival, many Haitians cross the border to Dominican soil without authorization in search of better living conditions. But, as is usual for illegal immigrants in nearly all nations, they are relegated to working class status, largely in farming, often sugar cane plantations, and house construction^[91] with poor housing and poor schools for their children. Any person born on Dominican soil is a Dominican citizen if one of his or her parents is a legal resident of the country, per the Dominican constitution, and any legally residing person in the Dominican Republic can theoretically become a citizen, many children of Haitian ancestors are stateless, as their parents are denied Dominican citizenship because they are deemed to be transient or have an illegal or undocumented residency status, or are unable to obtain Haitian citizenship for lack of proper documents or witnesses:^[92] note that Haiti's Constitution states in Title II, Article 11 that "Any person born of a Haitian father or Haitian mother who are themselves native-born Haitians and have never renounced their nationality possesses Haitian nationality at the time of birth".^[93]

A large number of Haitian women cross the border to Dominican soil during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain much-needed medical attention for childbirth, often arriving with several health problems, since Dominican public hospitals do not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status. Statistics from a hospital in Santo Domingo report that over 22% of childbirths are by Haitian mothers.^[94]

Competition for jobs has led to the deportation of many Haitians in an effort to save native Dominican rights.

Unofficially there are 800,000 illegal Haitians (other estimates place this figure around 1 million) living in the Dominican Republic, which accounts for about 10% of the national population.^[95] After a UN delegation issued a preliminary report stating that it found a profound problem of racism and discrimination against people of Haitian origins, Dominican Foreign Minister Carlos Morales Troncoso issued a formal statement denouncing it and asserting that "Our border with Haiti has its problems, this is our reality and it must be understood. It is important not to confuse national sovereignty with indifference, and not to confuse security with xenophobia..."^[96]

Emigration

The Dominican Republic has experienced three distinct waves of emigration in the second half of the twentieth century. The first period began in 1961, when a coalition of high-ranking Dominicans, with assistance from the CIA, assassinated General Rafael Trujillo, the nation's military dictator.^[97] In the wake of his death, fear of retaliation by Trujillo's allies, and political uncertainty in general, spurred migration from the island. In 1965, the United States began a military occupation of the Dominican Republic and eased travel restrictions, making it easier for Dominicans to obtain American visas.^[98] From 1966 to 1978, the exodus continued, fueled by high unemployment and political repression. Communities established by the first wave of immigrants to the U.S. created a network that assisted subsequent arrivals. In the early 1980s, underemployment, inflation, and the rise in value of the dollar all contributed to a third wave of migration from the island nation. Today, emigration from the Dominican Republic remains high, facilitated by the social networks of now-established Dominican communities in the United States.^[99]

Crime

The Dominican Republic has served as a transportation hub for Colombian drug cartels.^[100][1] In 2004 it was estimated that 8% of all cocaine smuggled into the United States has come through the Dominican Republic.^[101] The Dominican Republic responded with increased efforts to seize drug shipments, arrest and extradite those involved, and combat money-laundering. A 1995 report stated that social pressures and increasing poverty ? which was then increasing ? have led to a rise in prostitution within the Dominican Republic. Though prostitution is legal within the country and the age of consent is 18, child prostitution is a growing phenomenon in impoverished areas. In an environment where young girls are often denied employment opportunities offered to boys, prostitution frequently becomes a source of supplementary income. UNICEF estimated in 1994 that at least 25,000 children were involved in the Dominican sex trade, 63% of that figure being girls.^[102]

Culture

Carnaval of La Vega, one of the most famous carnivals in the country.

Cuisine

Dominican Republic cuisine is predominantly made up of a combination of Spanish, Taino and African influences over the last few centuries. Typical cuisine is quite similar to what can be found in other Latin American countries but, many of the names of dishes are different. Breakfast usually consists of eggs and mangú (mashed, boiled plantain). For heartier versions, these are accompanied by deep-fried meat (typically Dominican salami) and/or cheese. Similar to Spain, lunch is generally the largest and most important meal of the day. Lunch usually consists of some type of meat (chicken, pork or fish), rice and beans, and a side portion of salad. "La Bandera" (literally, The Flag), the most popular lunch dish, consists of broiled chicken, white rice and red beans.

Typical Dominican cuisine usually accommodates all four food groups, incorporating meat or seafood; rice, potatoes or plantains; and is accompanied by some other type of vegetable or salad. However, meals usually heavily favor meats and starches and less dairy products and vegetables. Many dishes are made with sofrito, which is a mix of local herbs and spices sautéed to bring out all of the dish's flavors. Throughout the south-central coast, bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in quipes or tipili (bulgur salad). Other favorite Dominican dishes include chicharrón, yucca, casave, and pastelitos (empanadas), batata, pasteles en hoja, chimichurris, platanos maduros and tostones.

Some treats Dominicans enjoy are arroz con dulce (or arroz con leche), bizcocho dominicano (lit. Dominican cake), habichuelas con dulce (sweet creamed beans), flan, frío frío (snow cones), dulce de leche, and caña (sugarcane).

The beverages Dominicans enjoy include Morir Soñando, rum, beer, Mama Juana, batida (smoothie), ponche, mabí, and coffee.^[103]

Music

Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for the creation of the musical style called merengue,^[104] a type of lively, fast-paced rhythm and dance music consisting of a tempo of about 120 to 160 beats per minute (it varies wildly) based on musical elements like drums, brass, and chorded instruments, as well as some elements unique to the music style of the DR. It includes the use of the tambora (Dominican drum), accordion, and guira. Its syncopated beats use Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass, and piano or keyboard. Well-known merengue singers include singer/songwriter Juan Luis Guerra, Fernando Villalona, Eddy Herrera, Sergio Vargas, Toño Rosario, Johnny Ventura, and Milly Quezada. Merengue became popular mostly on the east coast of the United States during the 1980s and 90s,^[105] when many Dominican artists such as Victor Roque y La Gran Manzana, Henry Hierro, Milly, Jocelyn Y Los Vecinos, etc. residing in the U.S. (particularly New York,) started performing in the Latin club scene and gained radio airplay. The emergence of bachata along with an increase in the number of Dominicans living among other Latino groups in New York, New Jersey, and