The Liancourt Rocks, also known as Dokdo or Tokto (??/??, literally "solitary island") in Korean or in Japanese,^[1] are a group of small islets in the Sea of Japan (also called East Sea). Sovereignty over the islets is disputed between Japan and South Korea.^[2] South Korea has controlled them since July 1954.^[3] The Franco-English name of the islets derives from Le Liancourt, the name of the French whaling ship whose crew almost crashed on the rocks in 1849.^[4]

The Liancourt Rocks are comprised of two main islets and 35 smaller rocks. Their total surface area of the islets is , with the highest elevation of found at an unnamed location on the west islet.^[5] Two Korean citizens, an octopus fisherman and his wife, are the only permanent residents of the islets. A small Korean police detachment, administrative personnel and lighthouse staff are rotated through non-permanent support positions on the islets.^[6]

South Korea administers the islets as Dokdo-ri,^[7] Ulleung-eup, Ulleung County, North Gyeongsang Province. Japan classifies them as part of Okinoshima, Oki District, Shimane Prefecture.

The islets lie in rich fishing grounds which could also contain large gas deposits.^[8]

Geography

A panorama image of the Liancourt Rocks.

Altogether, there are about 90 islets and reefs,^[9] volcanic rocks formed in the Cenozoic era.^[10] A total of 37 of these islets are recognized as permanent land.^[9]

The total area of the islets is about 187,450 square metres (46 acres), with their highest point at 169 metres on the West Islet (554 ft).^[5] The West Islet is about 88,640 square metres in area (22 acres); the East Islet is about 73,300 square metres (18 acres).^[9]

The West Islet consists of a single peak and features many caves along the coastline. The cliffs of the East Islet are about 10 to 20 metres high. There are two large caves giving access to the sea, as well as a crater.^[10][11]

In 2006, a geologist reported that the islets formed 4.5 million years ago and are quickly eroding.^[12]

Distance, elevation, and visibility

Liancourt Rocks are located at about 131°52´ East longitude and about 37°14´ North latitude.^[9] The West Islet is located at and the East Islet is located at .

Liancourt Rocks are 217 km (135 mi; 117 nm) from mainland Korea and 250 km (150 mi; 135 nm) from Japan proper.^[5] Distance, elevations, and weather conditions all affect visibility; a mathematical formula defines the numerical limits of visibility.

• D = 2.09 x (sqrt H + sqrt h)

where D is visible distance (nm), H elevation of landscape observed (m), and h elevation of observer's eyes (m). ^{[13] [14]}

The nearest Korean island, Ulleung-do, is 87 km away (54 mi; 47 nm), from which Liancourt Rocks are visible on a clear day in the absence of fog in the vicinity of Liancourt Rocks. ^{[15] [16]} The nearest Japanese island, Oki Islands, is 157 km away (98 mi; 85 nm), from which Liancourt Rocks are not visible on any day of the year regardless of weather conditions. ^{[17] [18] [19]}

Climate

Due to their location and extremely small size, the Liancourt Rocks sometimes have harsh weather. At times, ships are unable to dock because of strong northwestern winds in winter.^[5][11] Overall, the climate is warm and humid, and heavily influenced by warm sea currents. Precipitation is high throughout the year (annual average?1324 mm), with occasional snowfall.^[11] Fog is also a common sight. In the summer, southerly winds dominate.^[11] The water around the islets is about 10 degrees Celsius in spring, when the water is coolest. It warms to about 25 degrees Celsius in August.^[11]

Ecology

The islets are volcanic rocks, with only a thin layer of soil and moss.^[9] About 80 species of plants, over 22 species of birds, and 37 species of insects have been recorded on the islets, in addition to the local maritime life.^[5] Although the islets might appear rather small to support a significant flow of fresh water, and existing spring water are not fit for human consumption due to guano contamination, several springs producing potable water have been located recently. In the early 1970s trees and some types of flowers were planted.^[5] In historical times, however, there used to be indigenous trees on Liancourt Rocks according to historical records, which disappeared due to human harvesting. Trees are required under international law for the islets to be recognized as natural islands rather than reefs.^{[6] [11]}

Demographics

There are two permanent Korean citizens, Kim Sung-do (???) and Kim Shin-yeol (???), living on the islets. In addition to these residents, there are 37 South Korean police officers (?????/?????) who take residence on guard duty. There are also three Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries personnel, and three lighthouse keepers living on the islets in rotation. In the past, several fishermen also lived on the islets temporarily.^[6] For many years, civilian travel was subject to Korean government approval because the islet group is designated as a nature reserve. Tourist boats carrying 1,597 visitors were allowed to land in 2004. Since mid-March 2005, more tourists have been allowed to land, up to 70 tourists are permitted at any one time. Tour companies charge around 350,000 Korean won per person.^[6]

International dispute

Currently, both South Korea,^[20][21] and Japan^[22] are claiming sovereignty over Liancourt Rocks. There are conflicting interpretations about the state of sovereignty over the islets in pre-modern times. Korean claims are partly based on references to a Korean island called Usan-do (??, ???/???) in various historical records, geographies, maps, and encyclopedia such as Samguk Sagi, Annals of Joseon Dynasty, Dongguk Yeoji Seungnam, and Dongguk munhon bigo. According to the Korean view, these refer to today's Liancourt Rocks, while the Japanese views variously argue that they refer to either Juksoe (??; Korean Jukdo or Dae'soem), Kwanumdo (???, ??; Korean Seommok, G'aksae), Ulleungdo, or a non-existent island. ^[23]

1696 Murakami Document

Korean historical sources state that the administrator of Tokugawa shogunate reaffirmed in January 1696 that Ulleungdo and Dokdo belonged to Korea quoting An Yong-bok's testimony. ^{[24] [25] [26]}. The dispute about the ownership of Ulleung-do between Chosun Korea and Tokugawa Japan ignited when Korean fishermen clashed with Japanese fishermen on Ulleungdo waters in 1692. The following year, An Yong-Bok and Park Eo-dun, representing Korean fishing communities, are variously said to have visited, drifted, or even abducted by Japanese fishermen, arriving at Oki island in 1693. Taking this occasion, An discussed territorial title matters with a Japanese governmental official, reminding him that Ulleungdo and Jasando ??? (sic; a scribal corruption of Usan-do ???/???) are Korean territory. As a result, the bakufu issued prohibitions banning Japanese fishermen from travelling to Ulleng-do. This is called the 1st An Yong-bok incident.

The Murakami Document.

1697 Korean court's decision to disregard Tsushima's request of a formal letter for Edo

In Feb 1697, the Korean government reached a decision to reject Tsushima clan's request to emend a previous letter that mentioned Korea's Ulleungdo, and that An Yong-Bok's visit to Japan to raise a legal case does not require a written response from Korea since the Royal Court had no foreknowledge. These facts were to be conveyed to the Tsushima envoy's house informally: "An was an unenlightened subject who got thrown about by a storm. If he executed something, it had not been known by the Joseon Royal Court."^{[30] [31]}

In March, 1969, the Korean government made a formal communication in writing that An was punished for submitting a legal case against the governor of Hokishu to the Edo government without authorisation from the Korean government."^[32]

Although the Border Defense Command demanded capital punishment, King Sukjong commuted An's sentence to exile in positive consideration of his successful negotiations with the Edo government that resulted in the "prohibition of all Japanese travelling to Korea for fishing, harvesting, and lumbering for eternity". ^{[33] [34] [35]}

1785 Map of Three Adjoining Countries

1785 map of three adjoining countries.

1877 Daij?-kan order to exclude Takeshima (Ulleungdo) and another island from Japanese National Land Registry

On March 20, 1877, the Japanese Supreme Council Daij?-kan issued an order^[36] stating that Ulleungdo (then called "Takeshima ??", now called Matsushima ?? by Japan) and another island (???) are not under Japanese rule ^{[37] [38]}. Korea claims that "another island" (???) besides Ulleungdo refers to Liancourt Rocks ^{[39] [40] [41]} and considers this order as an evidence that Liancourt Rocks was under the control of Korea. The Japanese government has not made any comment on this point whereas some Japanese consider that "another island" (???) does not refer to Liancourt Rocks.^{[42] [43]}

1900 Korean Imperial Decree No. 41 separates Uldo Archipelago from Uljin County

In the year 1900, Korea issued Imperial Decree No. 41 of Oct 25, 1900, which included the following administrative actions.

• Ulleungdo, which had been subordinate to Uljin Prefecture^[44] since the reign of King Sejong, shall be renamed Uldo and elevated to county.

• Uldo County office shall rule over all of Uldo proper and its dependencies including Jukdo and Seokdo.

The decree was published in Official Gazette No. 1716 (?? ?1716?) on Oct 27 and distributed to the international community, including Imperial Japan, with representations in Seoul.^{[45] [46] [47]}

This decree states that Ulleungdo be renamed to Uldo (mod. Ulleungdo), and that the county hall shall govern the whole island of Ulleungdo, Jukdo, and Sokdo. ^{[48] [49]} Japan claims that there is no evidence to identify the island "Sokdo" as Liancourt Rocks, ^{[50] [51]} and that there is no record that proves the effective occupation by Korea before Japanese Cabinet decision of Jan 28, 1905. Korea claims that the island "Sokdo" mentioned in this document is Liancourt Rocks, and thus Liancourt Rocks was still officially part of Korea as an ancient territory since 512. Korea presents evidence that Koreans living on Ulleungdo referred to Liancourt Rocks as Dokseom (or Dolseom; literally "rocky island") in speech and Dokdo ?? in writing as a phonetic transcripton (??, umdok; ??? on-yomi), while the name "Seokdo" ?? ("rocky island") in the Ordinance was an instance of logographic translation (??, hundok; ??? kun-yomi). ^{[52] [53] [54]}

Korea also claims Liancourt Rocks was effectively managed by seasonal fishermen and divers in recent times ^[55] as a result of King Gojong's Ulleungdo Reclamation Program (??????) issued in Dec 1881. A first-person account by one of the fisrt settlers since the reclamation program has been presented as one evidence to the fact of the claim. ^[56] A South Korean scholar claims to have uncovered evidence that Korean fishermen effectively occupied engaged in "whaling" in Liancourt Rocks waters in the 1880s and that sea lions were hunted and sea-lion-derived products were exported to Japan in 1904 prior to the Japanese Cabinet decision of 1905 to incorporate a supposed terra nullius. ^[57]

1904 Japan-Korea treaty

The Japan-Korea Protocol of 1904 signed between Japan and Korea on February 23, 1904 (Japanese ?????, Nikkan Giteisho; Korean ?????, ?????, Han'il uijongso) stipulates in article 3 that Japan shall guarantee the territorial integrity of Korea. It further stipulates in article 4 that, in case the territorial integrity of Korea is endangered by aggression of a third power, Korea shall give full facilities to promote the action of Japan, and that Japan may occupy, when the circumstances require, such places as may be necessary for strategic reasons.

Article 4 of the treaty has been quoted as giving Japan full authorisation in terms of international law in taking Liancourt Rocks as a strategic surveillence point during the Russo-Japanese War.^{[58] [59] [60]} Article 3, however, has been quoted as preventing Japan from appropriating Liancourt Rocks post bellum, and hence ruling the 1905 Shimane incorporation illegal after the end of the war. ^{[61] [62]} Although the watch tower on Liancourt Rocks was demolished, suggesting the necessity on strategic resaons had disappeared, the Japanese Cabinet decision to incorporate Liancourt Rocks had not been revoked in violation of the treaty. This suggests foreign military threat from a third country in Article 4 was not the primary ground of incorporating Liancourt Rocks, ^[63] but its own violence and greed that Japan is expected to disprove with prima facie evidence in the manner of which the act of incorporation was committed. ^[64]

1905 Japanese Incorporation of Liancourt Rocks

The imperial government of Japan incorporated Liancourt Rocks as a result of a Cabinet decision in early 1905. Three motives are commonly cited for it cause: civilian occupation of said islets by a Japanese citizen from Oki, Nakai Yozaburo (?????; 1864-1934), practical necessities arising from the armed conflict with Russia, and Japan's foreign policy regarding Korea as its western frontier to fend off encroaching foreign powers. The incorporation was conducted incognito to foreign nations including Korea as the decision had never been announced by the central government to the international community. The Korean response to reports of the verbal notice by a local Japanese official was one of shock and disbelief, and orders were issued to investigate the truth of the report. While the result of the investigation is obscured in silence, apparently lending momentum to the Japanese claim, the Japanese Resident-General residing in Seoul, in 1906, makes an inquiry into which islands are administered by Ulleungdo (sic.), in the older designation before the 1900 Korean Imperial Decree No 40, to which the Internal Ministry relays facts consistent with the 1900 Imperial Decree No 41, that Uldo County administers Uldo proper, Jukdo, and Seokdo.

1903-1904 Nakai's Fishing Enterprise

On September 29, 1904, Nakai Yozaburo (?????; 1864-1934) of Saigo, Shimane Prefecture, experimenting with sea lion hunting business in the summers of 1903 and 1904, and wanting to protect his investment, submitted a petition to incorporate Liancourt Rocks and to issue exclusive license to hunt sea lions for ten years. The petition was submitted to the Home Ministry, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. Nakai, initially believing Liancourt Rocks to be Korean territory, had planned to ask for a lease from the Korean government via the Ministry of Trade and Commerce. An officer of the Ministry of Home Affairs considered it unwise to incorporate Liancourt Rocks suspected to be Korean territory, but the Navy and the Foreign Ministry advised incorporation would be profitable, and that there would arise no diplomatic repercussions. ^{[65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71]}

1905 Japanese Cabinet Decision on Liancourt Rocks

Japanese government's official view has evolved since 1905. On Jan 28, 1905, the Cabinet reached a decision to incorporate Liancourt Rocks (????????????????), on grounds that it had been a terra nullius under international law: ^{[72] [73] [74] [75] [76]} "There is no evidence to recognise that this uninhabited island was ever occupied by a foreign country... As evidenced through relevant records that a person by the name of Nakai Yozaburo (?????) has relocated to said island in 1903 (Meiji 36) and practiced fishing there since, we recognise the fact that occupation has occurred in terms of international law."^[77]

From 1947 to 1954, the Japanese government's claim shifted from prior occupation of a terra nullius to effective occupation by executing state intention to acquire territory". Not later than 1962, Japan again shifted its claim to "[the 1905] reconfirmation of title to an inherent/ancient territory", all based on Japan's changing interpretation of the same Cabinet decision document, all the while carefully avoiding its previous claim of incorporation on grounds of prior occupation of a terra nullius. ^[78] Korea also claims that Japan's 1905 claim to terra nullius conflicts with its previous recognition (i.e., the 1877 Daij?-kan order) of the islets as Korean territory. ^{[79] [80] [81]}

1905 Shimane Notice 40

Japan claims to have enforced its Cabinet decision of Jan 28, 1905 to incorporate the "unclaimed" islets as part of Shimane Prefecture (???) in Shimane Prefectural Notice No. 40 of Feb 22, 1905 (??????40?) ^{[82] [83] [84]}. The decision was reported in a newspaper, San-in Shimbun, on Feb 24, 1905.^{[85] [86] [87] [88]}

Korea claims that the decision was not reported in a official gazette. The decision was reported a one minor local newspaper only. There is no evidence that decision reported in a government gazette. Moreover, There is no evidence that decision reported to a central government of Japan at one time, also the decision was not noticed by central government. Japan was not notice to neighbor country. Korea claims that it was a almost impossible that tiny sized notice of local newspaper (3.4 cm^[89][90]) recognized by foreign. Korea claims that the decision was a nothing but a "document occupation", and its procedure was a secret. Therefore, Korea claims that the decision was not fulfil the necessary conditions of territory's incorporation by international law. ^{[91] [92]} Korea also claims that 'Shimane Notice 40' was not announced to public. ^[93]

The incorporation came in the heat of the Russo-Japanese War and before the Eulsa Treaty of November 17, 1905, when Korea became Japan's protectorate. A temporary watchtower was erected on the islets for anti-Russian surveillance purposes, which was demolished after Japan's victory in the war.

1906 Verbal Notification of Incorporation and Korean Response

Japanese claims the incorporation was legitimate in that Korea did not dispute the incorporation when the news was published. Korea claims the incorporation was invalid in that the Feb 24 San-in Shimbun report lacked official status as its circulation was limited to the Shimane prefectural region. Korea claims neither the decision of the Japanese Cabinet, the order of Ministry of Home Affairs, nor the Shimane Notice had been announced, until March 28, 1906, to the Korean government to which many Japanese, including petitioner Nakai Yozaburo (?????) and certain governmental officials believed the title of Liancourt Rocks belonged.

On that date, a party of 44 officials from Shimane Prefecture visited Ulleungdo. The Japanese officials, including Kanda Yoshitaro, traveled to Ulleungdo by way of Dokdo, and informed Sim Heung-taek, then Magistrate of Ulleungdo, that Dokdo had been incorporated into Japan.

Stunned by this announcement, Sim sent word, the next day to Yi Myeong-nae, then Governor of Gangwon Province. Yi, in turn, recognizing the urgency and gravity of the matter, forwarded the report to the State Council Minister of the Korean Empire.

State Council Minister Bak Je-sun, in Directive No. 3 issued on May 20, 1906, stated, ?It is totally groundless that Dokdo has become Japanese territory,? and went on to order ?an investigation and report on the situation and on what the Japanese have done.?^[94] The Eulsa Treaty stripped Korea of all its diplomatic rights on 17 November 1905.^[95][96] Five years later, Korea was fully annexed by Japan.

1906 Communication between Japanese Resident-General and the Korean Government

A curious inquiry and reply are exchanged between Japanese and Korean officials, the result of which is reported in July 13 edition of Hwangseong Shinmun. In the letter, says the report, the Japanese Resident-General asks which islands are administered by Ulleung Is. The Korean Home Ministry simply lists the same islands as in the 1900 Decree specifying Seokdo, which Korea claims to be Liancourt Rocks. It also adds a physical measurement of what is believed to be Ulleung Is.^{[97] [98] [99] [100]}

The Japanese inquiry is not current with the 1900 Korean Decree in its inaccurate designation of place names and offices, while the Korean reply remains silent on the rumour of incorporation of Liancourt Rocks of which it had not been officially notified. The details of the reasons for the Resident-General's inquiry and the Korean government's judgement regarding the inquiry are not known. ^{[101] [102]}

Prior to the Resident-General's inquiry and the Korean government's response reported on July 13, daily newspapers Hwangseong Shinmun (May 9, 1906) and Daehan Maeil Sinbo (May 1, 1906) had denied the rumoured Japanese local official's claim of incorporating Liancourt Rocks. "their claim to Dokdo as Japanese territory is totally groundless; the story is really shocking." ^[103] Although Hwangseong Shinmun had clearly declared that rumours of the Japanese incorporation of Liancourt Rocks were baseless two months before the July communication^[104], and although the July communication reminded the Resident-General, Itou Hirobumi, of the 1900 Imperial Decree reaffirming Korea's state authority over Liancourt Rocks, there is no evidence that the then Resident-General or any other representation of Imperial Japan raised a formal objection to it.

1920 Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in exile

In a memorial speech at the first anniversary of the 1919 March 1st Movement, Prime Minister Yi Dongnyeong accused Japanese government's illegal incorporation of Liancourt Rocks of 1905. ^[105]

Post World War II era

The recent dispute stems largely from conflicting interpretations of whether Japan's renunciation of sovereignty over its occupied territories after World War II was supposed to cover the Liancourt Rocks as well.

Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers Instruction #677 of January 29, 1946, listed the Liancourt Rocks, along with many other islands, as part of those territories over which Japanese administration was to be suspended.^[106] In the first to fifth drafts of the Treaty of San Francisco between Japan and the Allied powers, Liancourt Rocks was described as part of Korea.

The sixth and seventh drafts, made on Dec 29, 1949, and Aug 7, 1950, respectively, ruled that Liancourt Rocks belonged to Japan.

The U.K. draft and the attached map^[107] reflecting the view of Commonwealth nations^[108] submitted April 7, 1951, excluded Liancourt Rocks from Japanese territorial definition and placed Liancourt Rocks within Korean territory:

"Japanese sovereignty shall continue over all the islands and adjacent islets and rocks lying within an area bounded by a line ... bearing north-easterly between ... the islands of Oki-Retto to the south-east and Take Shima to the north-west".

Finally, the U.K. agreed to the US style of the treaty excluding the islands of Quelpart, Port Hamilton and Dagelet from Japan. ^[109]

The final version left the territorial title of Liancourt Rocks undefined between Japan and signatory states.

Article 1

(b) The Allied Powers recognize the full sovereignty of the Japanese people over Japan and its territorial waters.

Article 2

(a) Japan recognizing the independence of Korea, renounces all right, title and claim to Korea, including the islands of Quelpart, Port Hamilton and Dagelet.

Korea claims that its territorial title to Liancourt Rocks was returned to Korea with the surrender of Japan which was enforced by Supreme Commander for Allied Powers' prohibitions suspending Japanese access to within from said island ^[110] which needs to be explicitly revoked in order to effect a change ^[111]. Such a change modifying the status of Liancourt Rocks has never occurred before "SCAP transferred its jurisdiction... to the United States Army Military Government in Korea on January 29, 1946." The U.S. Military Government in Korea, in turn, reverted all jurisdiction over Liancourt Rocks to the Government of South Korea when it launched on August 15, 1948.^[112] South Korea's President Rhee Syngman's announcement of the Peace Line enforced Korea's territorial title to Liancourt Rocks.

US's recognation about this format of treaty was Japan recovered full sovereignty under article 1 except islands which were excluded from Japan by name. ^[113]

Early Japanese efforts to claim Liancourt Rocks and Ulleung Island

Both countries submitted petitions and documents to pursuade the Allied Powers to rule Liancourt Rocks in their favour. The Japanese government's Foreign Office submitted a series of documents, issued from November 1946 to June 1947, entitled Minor Islands Adjacent to Japan Proper; Parts I-IV, of which Part IV, Minor Islands in the Pacific, Minor Islands in the Sea of Japan described Utsuryo-shima (Ulleungdo) and Take-shima (Dokdo, Liancourt Rocks) as Japanese territory. ^{[114] [115] [116] [117] [118]} This document largely based on material prepared by Kawakami Kenzo ????, the then treaties expert for the Japanese Foreign Office, argued for the Japanese title to Dagelet Is and Liancourt Rocks in the following words ^[119]:

• Chapter II. Minor Island in the Japan Sea ^[120]

• Introduction

• "Liancourt Rocks and Dagelet Is lie off the Tsushima Strait [are] some apart."

• "The existence of these islands was known to Japan in early times."

• The Japanese names for these two islands were reversed due to the cartographic error of a German Dutch physician Philipp Franz von Siebold. ^[121]

• I. Liancourt Rocks (Take-shima)

• 1. Geography

• Liancourt Rocks are from Oki Islands of Shimane Prefecture.

• 2. History

• "[T]he Japanese knew the existence of the Liancourt Rocks from the ancient times."

• "The earliest documentary evidence is Inshu Shicho Goki" of 1667.

• "While there is a Korean name for Dagelet, none exists for the Liancourt Rocks."

• "They are not shown in the maps made in Korea."

• 3. Industry

• "It is presumed no one has ever settled on the islets."

• "In 1904, the inhabitants of Oki islands began to hunt sea-lions on these islets."

• "[E]ach summer, the islanders, using Dagelet as their base, went regularly to the Rocks and built sheds as temporary quarters for the season."

• II. Dagelet Island (Matsu-shima, Utsuryo or Ul-lung Island)

• 1. Geography

• "Dagelet Island is equidistant from the port of Fushan (Busan) and the port of Sakai of Tottori Prefecture of Japan."

• "The flora of this island... is recognized to have many common features with Japan Proper."

• "The cultivation in Japan of the Take-shima lily (lilium hansonii), an indemic plant of the island, is mentioned in a book published in 1710, a fact which points to an early intercourse between the island and Japan."

• 2. History

• In Japanese documents... reference was made as early as 1004 to Uruma Island, an old Japanese equivalent for Ul-lung Island."

• "The Korean Government from 1400 and onward adhered for a long time to a policy of keeping it uninhabited...the island was thus virtually abandoned by the Korean Government."

Many of these claims, regardless of their historical verity, and without critical historical review ^[122], were emphasised by William J. Sebald, the then political advisor for SCAP in Tokyo, which eventually had a strong formative influence on the position maintained by the Diplomatic Section of SCAP and the US State Department regarding the territorial aspect of the Peace Treaty. ^{[123] [124]}

Educated neither as an historian nor a geographer, went on to build on this early investigation supporting the Japanese claim in a work called ^[125] for the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs published in 1966, in which he added such claims as:

• Koreans on Ulleungdo could not see Dokdo, due to the heavy forestation on Ulleungdo

• Koreans were not aware of the Liancourt Rocks before the 20th century, as seen in the lack of documents pertaining to the Liancourt Rocks

• Koreans did not have adequate naval navigation to reach Dok-do/Takeshima

While such adherents as Shimojo Masao, Tanaka Kunitaka, and Gerry Bevers have presented arguements essentially building on Kawakami's old claims, many of the claims, old and new, have been disproved as spurious by both Korean and Japanese scholars.

• Visibility of Liancourt Rocks from Ulleungdo is attested in history ^{[126] [127] [128] [129]}, in theory ^{[130] [131]} and from observation ^[132].

• Koreans already possessed the skills to reach Ulleung-do from mainland Korea since not later than the 6th century. ^[133]

• Koreans transmitted advanced shipbuilding/navigational technology to the Japanese from early historical times. ^[134]

Bangudae Petroglyphs: "Other depictions of whales show it carrying calves... This type of stone-working technique suggests that the engravings were made towards the end of the Neolithic or the start of the Bronze Age." ^{[135] [136]}

Early Korean efforts to claim Liancourt Rocks as an Appendage/Dependency to Ulleung Island

A corresponding Korean effort came from a private organisation self-styled "Patriotic Old Men's Association" led by a former military leader of the Korean Government in Exile, Cho Sung Hwan, on August 5, 1948, ten days before the inauguration of the South Korean government.^{[137] [138] [139]}

They petitioned for the sovereignty of Docksum (Liancourt Rocks), Ullung Do, Tsushima and Parang islands ^{[140] [141]} The Headquarters of the Patriotic Men's Association made the following statements to back up Korea's claim to sovereignty over Ulleung Is and Liancourt Rocks:

• Request for Arrangement of Lands between Korea and Japan

• I. Returning ... the island "Docksum."

• "'Ulneungdo' and its attached ... belong... to Korea historically."

• "Japan planned to profit by fishing and foresting under the evacuation policy."

• "Resolute negotiation... Japan acknowledged their fault and made a word to prohibit to fish there in 1693."

• "Since 1881, Japan began to reinvade... Under the negotiations in Tokyo... by plenipotentiary Suh Sang Woo and ... advisior G. von Mollendorf, Japan surrendered to Korea."

• Japan, never dismiss[ing] the fishing profit around Ulneungdo, ... planned to occupy a corner of it... and became to find out a small island called 'Docksum'... near the Ulneungdo, where whales gathered."

• "In 1904, Japanese fishere of Tottoriken named Nakai Yosaburo made a cruel programm to seize the Docksum and was practised to submit petitions or requets to the hydrographic department of Navy, Dep't of Home Affairs, Dep't of Foreign Affairs and Dep't of Agriculture and Commerce... to register the island into Japanese territory."

• "The so-called Takeshima is the very 'Dockusum (sic) in Korean name."

• "This is namely Liancourt Rocks on the world's chart."

• "This name "Liancourt-Rocks" was established due to the name of the French whaler which found... the island. Thereafeter, by the Russian warship 'Paleada' ion 1854, and by the English warship "Hornet" in 1855, the said island was re0found and the ship's name was given to it."

• "But it was never suspected that these variously named island was the very island "Ulneungdo."

• "It is ... said that a Japanese district office carried out such a plan imposing upon the world."

• "Such an island occupied illegally by Japan should be returned to Korea."

The document's clear identification of Liancourt Rocks with the Korean "Docksum" in the vernacular language is not noted by William Sebald, whose office relayed a facsimile copy to the US State Department. The document is unique in its logical treatment of Liancourt Rocks as an appendage/dependency ^[142] to Ulleung Is as can be seen in the statement: "these variously named island was the very island 'Ulneungdo'" although some scholars believe the prerequisite to unity theory needs a qualification before it can be applied to the case of Liancourt Rocks.^[143]

First US bombing incident over Liancourt Rocks

The US designated Liancourt Rocks as a bombing range(SCAPIN #1778), and notified Japanese government on September 16, 1947. On June 8, 1948, twenty-nine US B-29 bombers from Kadena, Okinawa, flew over Liancourt Rocks in a bombing excercise dropping seventy-six bombs causing civilian casualties. ^[144] The South Korean government announced 16 civilians were killed by the US military drill, higher estimates run up to twenty times that figure, i.e. 320. ^[145]

One researcher estimates damages somewhere between 30 and 80 fishing boats and civilian deaths between 30 and 100. ^{[146] [147]}

Classified US communication to Korean Government

On Aug 10, 1951, a secret correspondence currently known as Rusk documents was sent to South Korea communicating the then U.S. position on issues of territorial sovereignty in the Peace Treaty explaining why the US believed Liancourt Rocks were Japanese territory: "[T]his normally uninhabited rock formation was according to our information never treated as part of Korea and, since about 1905, has been under the jurisdiction of the Oki Islands Branch Office of Shimane Prefecture of Japan. The island does not appear ever before to have been claimed by Korea."

Korea announces state intention to resume administration

On January 18, 1952, South Korea, a non-signatory state to the San Francisco Peace Treaty, announced the Presidential Declaration of Sovereignty over Adjacent Seas (Peace Line, Rhee Line) including Liancourt Rocks within Korean territory along the expiring MacArthur Line (SCAPIN#1033; June 22, 1946 - April 1952) before the Peace Treaty came into force on April 28.

On July 18, 1952, South Korea issued a presidential order to seize all illegal foreign vessels engaging in fishing in breach of the Peace Line.

Japanese MOFA acknowledges intention behind bombing range designation

On May 23, 1952, in a Foreign Affairs committee meeting held in the House of Representatives, Ishihara, Vice-minister of Foreigner Affairs acknowledged MOFA's intention regarding the designation of Liancourt Rocks as bombing range for Occupation Forces in response to a question raised by Yamamoto, a Diet member from the Shimane constituency: "[To] help Japan get confirmation of its territorial sovereignty over the island." ^[148]

Second US bombing incident over Liancourt Rocks raises doubts

On September 15, 1952, a South Korean scientific expedition aboard Chinnam-ho and a fishing crew of 23 aboard Kwangyong-ho were attacked on Liancourt Rocks waters by a mono-propellered aircraft bearing the US insignia that disappeared in the direction of Japan after dropping four bombs. The South Korean Navy had initially submitted an itinerary to the United Nations Naval Commander in Busan (CTG 95.7) on Sept 7 of the expedition to visit Ulleungdo Island and Liancourt Rocks 14th and 15th of September. Granted approval to travel to said areas by CTG 95.7, the expedition departed Busan on Sept 12 unaware of the United States-Japan Joint Committee's bombing plan over Liancourt Rocks for Sept 15.^[149]

In response to the bombing incident, the US Embassy to Japan in Tokyo transmitted a message including the following on October 3, 1952, to the US State Department, "The history of these rocks has been reviewed more than once by the Department, and does not need extensive recounting here. The rocks, which are fertile seal breeding grounds, were at one time part of the Kingdom of Korea. They were, of course, annexed together with the remaining territory of Korea when Japan extended its Empire over the former Korean State... There exists a fair chance that... American bombs may cause loss of life... which will bring the Korean efforts to recapture these islands into more prominent play, and may involve the United States unhappily in the implications of that effort." ^[150]

US State Department answered to US Embassy Korea and Tokyo on Nov 14, 1952,"It appears that the Department has taken the position that these rocks belong to Japan and has so informed the Korean Ambassador in Washington.[...]it did not appear that they had ever before been claimed by Korea. As a result Article 2(a) of the Treaty of Peace with Japan makes no mention of the Liancourt Rocks."

Finally, US government kept the understanding of Rusk notes, and US Embassy Korea sent a diplomatic document?to Korea government on Dec 4, 1952,?"The Embassy has taken note of the statement contained in the Ministry's Note that'Dokdo Island (Liancourt Rocks) .....is a part of the territory of the Republic of Korea.'The United States Government's understanding of the territorial status of this island was stated in assistant Secretary dated August 10,1951." .

US downplays its support for Japan's sovereignty over Liancourt Rocks, declines to interfere in the dispute

On Dec 9, 1953, the US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles cabled the American Embassy in Tokyo, "US view re Takeshima is simply that of one of many signatories to the treaty. The U.S. is not obligated to 'protect Japan' from Korean "pretensions" to Dokdo, and that such an idea cannot...be considered as a legitimate claim for US action under the U.S.-Japan security treaty."" ^{[151] [152]}

In 1954, James Van Fleet, a US special mission ambassador, submitted a secret report after a round of visits to South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines, to the U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower. The The Report of Van Fleet mission to the Far East summarised: "[T]he United States concluded that they remained under Japanese sovereignty and the Island was not included among the Islands that Japan released from its ownership under the Peace Treaty ... Though the United States considers that the islands are Japanese territory, we have declined to interfere in the dispute.""

Proposal to settle before ICJ rejected

In September 1954 and March 1962, Japan proposed to South Korea that the dispute be referred to the International Court of Justice. South Korea has rejected the proposal.

Sebald predicts negative outcome in Japan's bid for UNSC action, but advises legal counsel

On November 17, 1954, Japanese Embassy Minister Shigenobu Shima asked William Sebald, the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Far Eastern Affairs, and Mr. R. B. Finn, Officer in Charge of Japanese Affairs at the State Department, Washington D.C., whether the U.S. would support Japan in the Security Council if it submited the dispute with the ROK over Liancourt Rocks.

William Sebald responded, "I have personally followed this controversy over a long period of time... although Japan is free to do as it thought best in presenting its case, the Security Council would probably want to see that all bilateral efforts have been exhausted before hearing the case." He added, "It seems that the ROK will not submit to ICJ arbitration regardless of Security Council action." Sebald added, "It is important for Japan to keep its claim alive and not to permit its rights to be prejudiced by default... A note to the ROK or other periodic formal statements would serve this purpose." ^[153]

When Embassy Minister Shigenobu Shima asked whether this constituted US recognition of the validity of Japan´s claim, Sebald responded, "US relations with the ROK had recently improved," noting, "The US-ROK Mututal Defense Treaty is being brought into force on November 17...The general understanding had been agreed to in Seoul."^[154]

The current U.S. government stands on a neutral position on this issue.

Recent conflict

A banner outside a Seoul government building demanding that Japan apologize

Prime Minister Han Seung-soo expressed strong dissatisfaction for Japan's Education Ministry^[161] The Korean government is also considering building infrastructure to provide tap water, establishing an oceanic scientific base, dispatching public officials to the area, allowing freer public access to the islets, and turning Dokdo into a resort area with hotels.^[161] Korea rejected a Japanese offer for a bilateral meeting on the sidelines of the annual ASEAN regional security summit in Singapore.^[162] Japan's Chief Cabinet Secretary expressed concern that military tensions would escalate.^[162]

In July 2008, the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN) changed the name of the country that Liancourt Rocks belong to from South Korea to Undesignated Sovereignty. Responding to this change, Gonzalo R. Gallegos, Acting Deputy Spokesman of the U.S. State Department, said on July 28, 2008 that the United States has long maintained a policy stance of neutrality on the islets, and that the latest change does not represent any policy change within the U.S. government.^[163]

The same change that classified Liancourts Rocks as Undesignated Sovereignty in the BGN database was reversed on July 30th under the order of U.S. President George W. Bush, once again marking the status of Liancourts Rocks under South Korean control.^{[164][165][166][167][168]}

Appearance in Chinese records

In 1488, Dong Yue, a Chinese fonctionnaire and diplomat, wrote a memoir of his Korean journey in a fu epic called A Fu on Korea, Chao Xian Fu,?Chinese ???). A 1717 Japanese facsimile manuscript recently rediscovered includes a map of Korea, Joson paldo chongdo, which shows the islands of Ulleung (Dagelet Is.) and Usan (Liancourt Rocks) as Korean territory. ^[169]

See also

• Korea under Japanese rule
• Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty
• Japan-Korea relations
• Japan-South Korea Joint Declaration of 1998
• Japanese-Korean disputes
• List of war apology statements issued by Japan
• Japanese history textbook controversies

External links

• The Issue of Takeshima, Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Takeshima Shimane Prefectural Government
• The Truth of Dokdo : Response to ?10 Issues of Takeshima?by Northeast Asian History Foundation ?,?
• The History of Dokdo(Feb, 10, 2007), Northeast Asian History Foundation
• Korea's Dokdo: Past and Present Korean Embassy to USA
• Dokdo: Korean Territory Since the Sixth Century Korean Embassy to USA (pdf)
• Story of Dokdo by Dokdo Research and Preservation Association and Dokdo Institute (pdf)
• Dokdo studies in English for researchers by Dokdo Institute/Shin Yong-Ha
• Selected Research on Dokdo Island by Mark Lovmo
• The Historical Facts of the Dokdo Takeshima Dispute by Steve Barber
• Cyber Dokdo History Hall
• Cyber Dokdo
• BBC News Video of protest in Seoul
• History of and Sovereignty over Dokdo, Korea.net

References

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