The Roman Catholic Church, officially known as the Catholic Church,^[1][2] is the world's oldest and largest Christian Church representing over half of all Christians and one-sixth of the world's population.^[3][4] It is made up of one Western church (the Latin Rite) and 22 Eastern Catholic churches, divided into 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world. The Church looks to the Pope, currently Benedict XVI, as its highest human authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.^[5] The Church community is composed of an ordained ministry and the laity, each may become members of religious communities like the Dominicans, Carmelites, Franciscans, Salesians and many others.^[6]

The Catholic Church defines its mission as spreading the message of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity.^[7] In carrying out its mission, the Church operates social programs and institutions throughout the world. These include schools, universities, hospitals, missions and shelters, as well as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas Internationalis and Catholic Charities that help the poor, families, the elderly and the sick.^[8]

Through apostolic succession, the Church and many historians believe it to be the continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus in his consecration of Saint Peter.^[9][10][11] The Church has defined its doctrines through various ecumenical councils, following the example set by the first Apostles in the Council of Jerusalem.^[12][13] On the basis of promises that Jesus made to his apostles, it believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error.^[14][15][16] Catholic faith is summarized in the Nicene Creed and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.^[17] Formal Catholic worship is ordered by the liturgy, which is regulated by Church authority. The Eucharist, one of seven Church sacraments and a key part of every Catholic Mass, is the center of Catholic worship.

With a nearly two thousand year history, the Church is the world's oldest and largest institution.^[18] From at least the 4th century, it has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilization.^[19] In the 11th century, the Eastern, Orthodox Church and the Western, Catholic Church split, largely over disagreements regarding papal primacy. Eastern churches that maintained (or later re-established) communion with Rome form the Eastern Catholic Churches. In the 16th century, partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation.

The Catholic Church maintains that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus, but acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to bring people to salvation.^[20] The Church teaches that it is called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity among all Christians?a movement known as ecumenism.^[21] Modern challenges facing the Church include the rise of secularism, and opposition to its pro-life stance on abortion, contraception and euthanasia.^[22]

Origin and mission

This detail of a fresco (1481–82) by Pietro Perugino in the Sistine chapel shows Jesus giving the keys of heaven to Saint Peter.

Some scholars agree that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus and that the historical record confirms that it was considered a Christian doctrinal authority from its beginning.^[9][11] Some cite a letter from Pope Clement I to the church in Corinth (c. 95) as evidence of a presiding Roman cleric who exercised authority over other churches.^[26] Others acknowledge the existence of a Christian community in Rome and that Peter and Paul "lived, preached and died" there^[27] but aren't certain that there was a ruling bishop in the Roman church in the first century, and question the concept of apostolic succession.^[28]

The Church believes that its mission is founded upon Jesus' command to his followers to spread the faith across the world:^[11] "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age".^[29][30][31] Pope Benedict XVI summarized this mission as a threefold responsibility to proclaim the word of God, celebrate the sacraments, and exercise the ministry of charity.^[32] As part of its ministry of charity the Church runs Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities, Caritas Internationalis, Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, shelters and ministries to the poor, as well as ministries to families, the elderly and the marginalized.^[8]

Beliefs

As a trinitarian Christian church, Roman Catholicism holds that there is one eternal God who exists as a mutual indwelling of three persons: the Father; the Son, Jesus; and the Holy Spirit. Catholic beliefs are summarized in the Nicene Creed^[33] and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.^[17][34] The Nicene Creed is recited at all Catholic Sunday Masses, and also forms the central statement of belief of other Christian denominations.^[33][35] Chief among these are Eastern Orthodox Christians, whose beliefs are quite similar to those of Catholics, differing from them mainly with regard to papal infallibility, the filioque clause and the immaculate conception of Mary.^[36][37] Protestant churches vary in their beliefs, but generally differ from Catholics regarding the pope, church tradition, the Eucharist and issues pertaining to grace, good works and salvation.^[38] The five solas, composed by Martin Luther in the 16th century, were one attempt to express these differences.^[39]

Over the centuries, Catholic teachings have been refined and clarified by councils of the Church convened by Church leaders at important points throughout history.^[13] The first such council, the Council of Jerusalem, was convened by the apostles around the year 50;^[12] the most recent was the Second Vatican Council, which closed in 1965.^[40]

Teaching authority, seven sacraments, different rites

A 19th-century painting by Carl Heinrich Bloch depicts Jesus preaching the Sermon on the Mount.

According to the Catechism, Jesus instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church.^[46] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are important visible rituals which Catholics see as effective channels of God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).^[47][48] Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the worldwide Church. These reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than a diversity in beliefs.^[49] The most commonly used is the Western or Latin rite. Others are the Byzantine rite, the Alexandrian or Coptic rite, the Syriac, Armenian, Maronite and Chaldean rites.

God the Father, original sin and Baptism

Guido Reni's Archangel Michael (1636) shows Michael?one of three archangels?defeating Lucifer.

The Church believes that people can be cleansed of original sin and all personal sins through Baptism.^[61] This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the natural and supernatural Church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.^[61]

Jesus, sin and Penance

Modern confessional in the Church of the Holy Name, Dunedin, New Zealand. The penitent may kneel on the kneeler or sit in a chair facing the priest (not shown)

After a person has been Baptised, the sacrament of Penance (Confession) is the means by which Catholics believe they can obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. Catholics believe Jesus gave the apostles special authority to forgive sins in God's name based on his words to his disciples in the Gospel of John 20:21–23.^[72] A penitent confesses his sins to the priest, who may then offer advice. After the priest has imposed a particular penance to be performed, the penitent then prays an act of contrition and the priest administers absolution, formally forgiving the person of his sins.^[73] He is forbidden under penalty of excommunication to reveal any sin or disclosure heard under the seal of confession. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can licitly receive the sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist.^[74][75]

Holy Spirit and Confirmation

Bernini's stained glass window in St. Peter's Basilica depicts the Holy Spirit as a dove, a common motif in Christian art, referencing John the Baptist's proclamation that he saw the Holy Spirit descend upon Jesus at his baptism "like a dove".

The Nicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son. Thus the Church teaches that receiving the Holy Spirit is an act of receiving God.^[79] Through the sacrament of Confirmation, Catholics ask for and believe they receive the Holy Spirit. Confirmation is sometimes called the "sacrament of Christian maturity" and is believed to increase and deepen the grace received at Baptism.^[78] Spiritual graces or gifts of the Holy Spirit may include the wisdom to see and follow God's plan, as well as judgment, love, courage, knowledge, reverence and rejoicing in the presence of God.^[80] The corresponding fruits of the Holy Spirit are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control.^[80]

To be licitly confirmed, Catholics must be in a state of grace, in that they cannot be conscious of having committed a mortal sin. They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor or godparent for spiritual support, and selected a saint to be their special patron and intercessor.^[78] Baptism in the Eastern rites, including infant baptism, is immediately followed by the reception of Confirmation and the Eucharist.^[81]

Nature of the Church and social teaching

Extreme Unction (Anointing of the Sick) by Rogier Van der Weyden, a detail of his work The Seven Sacraments (1445)

While the Catholic Church believes and teaches that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus,^[87] it also holds that the Holy Spirit can work through other churches to bring people to salvation.^[24] In its apostolic constitution Lumen Gentium, the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in diverse Christian churches and communities, and that Catholics are called to work for unity among all Christians.^[88]

The Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world but teaches that individual Catholics are required to practice spiritual and corporal works of mercy as well. Corporal works of mercy include feeding the hungry, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison. Spiritual works require the Catholic to share their knowledge with others, to give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, have patience, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it and pray for the living and the dead.^[8] In conjunction with the work of mercy to visit the sick, the Church offers the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, performed only by a priest who will anoint with oil the head and hands of the ill person and pray a special prayer for them while laying on hands.^[89]

Church teaching on works of mercy and the new social problems of the industrial era led to the development of Catholic social teaching. Emphasizing human dignity, it criticizes elements of both capitalism and socialism ^[90][91] and commits Catholics to the welfare of others.^[8]

Final judgment and afterlife

The Last Judgement, by Hieronymus Francken II (c. 1610)

There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is a state requiring penance and purgation of sin through God's mercy aided by the prayers of others.^[92] Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.^[92] Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to hell, an everlasting separation from God.^[95] The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God and his love.^[92] He predestines no one to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.^[92] Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved "like the good thief who was crucified next to Jesus".^[92][96]

Prayer and worship

Catholic liturgy is regulated by Church authority^[97] and consists of the Eucharist and Mass, the other sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours. At a minimum, the Catechism requires every Catholic to attend Mass on Sundays, confess sins at least once a year, receive the Eucharist at least during Easter season, observe days of fasting and of abstinence as established by the Church, and help provide for the Church's needs.^[98] While all Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the Church, individual or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference.^[99] Frequent reception of the Eucharist as often as daily and confession of sins as often as once a month are common Catholic practice encouraged by the Church and the various religious orders.

Eucharist

The Eucharist (Holy Communion), is celebrated at each Mass and is the center of Catholic worship^[100][101] The words of institution for this sacrament are found in the three synoptic Gospels of Matthew,^[102] Mark,^[103] and Luke,^[104] as well as in I Corinthians;^[105] "Then he took the bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them, saying, 'This is my body, which will be given for you; do this in memory of me.' "^[106] "Then he took a cup, gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, 'Drink from it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which will be shed on behalf of many for the forgiveness of sins.' "^[107] The Church teaches that the Old Testament promise of God's salvation for all peoples was fulfilled when Jesus established a New Covenant with humanity through the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper - a covenant then consummated with his sacrifice on the cross. Catholicism teaches that just as God's first covenant or solemn agreement with Moses and the Hebrew people was sealed with the blood of sacrificial animals, his new covenant with humanity was sealed with the blood of Jesus.^[108] It believes that the bread and wine brought to the altar at each Mass are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true body and the true blood of Christ (termed transubstantiation) and that by consuming these, believers are spiritually nourished and deepen their union with Jesus, are helped to overcome and avoid sin, cleansed of venial sins, unite with the poor and promote Christian unity.^[108][109]

Pope Benedict XVI celebrates Holy Mass at the canonization of Frei Galvão in São Paulo, Brazil on 11 May 2007.

The most common celebration of the Eucharist, the Latin rite or ordinary form, is separated into two parts, the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist.^[110] and generally last from a half hour for a daily Mass to just over an hour for a Sunday Mass. According to professor Alan Schreck, in its main elements and prayers, the Catholic Mass celebrated today "bears striking resemblance" to the form of the Mass described in the Didache and First Apology of Justin Martyr in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries.^[111][112] The celebration of the Eucharist in the Eastern Catholic Churches is termed Divine Liturgy. Variations exist in this liturgy between the different Eastern Churches that reflect different cultural traditions.

An alternate or extraordinary form of Mass, called the Tridentine Mass, is celebrated primarily in Latin. Originating after the Council of Trent, it reaffirms that the Mass is the same sacrifice of Jesus' death as the one he suffered on Calvary, which is in opposition to Protestant belief.^[113] Although this form was superseded by the ordinary as the primary form after the Second Vatican Council, it continued to be offered by an indult since Pope John Paul II's 1988 motu proprio, Ecclesia Dei^[114] and can now be said by any Roman rite priest according to Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio, Summorum Pontificum.^[115]

Because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,^[116] there are strict rules about its celebration and reception. The ingredients of the bread and wine used in the Mass are specified and Catholics must abstain from eating for one hour before receiving Communion.^[117] Those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden from this sacrament unless they have received absolution through the sacrament of Penance.^[117] Because the Church respects their celebration of the Mass as a true sacrament, intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox in "suitable circumstances and with Church authority" is both possible and encouraged.^[118] Although the same is not true for Protestant churches, in circumstances of grave necessity, Catholic ministers may give the sacraments of Eucharist, Penance and Anointing of the Sick to Protestants if they freely ask for them, truly believe what the Catholic Church teaches regarding the sacraments, and have the proper disposition to receive them.^[118] Catholics may not receive communion in Protestant churches because of their different beliefs and practices regarding Holy Orders and the Eucharist.^[119]

Liturgy of the Hours and the liturgical year

In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus instructs his disciples to "pray always".^[120] The Liturgy of the Hours, or Divine Office, is the Church's effort to respond to this request. It is considered to be an extension of the celebration of the Mass and is the official daily liturgical prayer of the Church.^[121] It makes particular use of the Psalms as well as readings from the New and Old Testament, and various prayers.^[121] It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night. Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the Church that has been called a breviary. By canon law, priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day.^[122] Religious orders often make praying the Liturgy of the Hours a part of their rule of life; the Second Vatican Council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice.^[121][123]

The liturgical year is the annual calendar of the Catholic Church. The Church sets aside certain days and seasons of each year to recall and celebrate various events in the life of Christ. The Byzantine liturgical year, like the former imperial calendar, starts on 1 September, while in the Western Church the liturgical year begins with Advent, the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth, and his expected second coming at the end of time. Christmastide follows, beginning on the night of 24 December (Christmas Eve), and ending with the feast of the baptism of Jesus. Lent is the period of purification and penance that in the Latin church begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Thursday. (In the Byzantine Catholic churches, "Great Lent" begins on Clean Monday and, counting the Sundays as part of the forty days of Lent, ends on Lazarus Saturday, being followed immediately by Great and Holy Week.) The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the Lord's Supper marks the beginning of the Easter Triduum which includes Good Friday, Holy Saturday and Easter Sunday. These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, death on the cross, burial and resurrection. The seven-week liturgical season of Easter immediately follows the Triduum climaxing at Pentecost. This recalls the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples after the Ascension of Jesus. The rest of the liturgical year is known as Ordinary Time.^[124]

Devotional life, prayer, Mary and the saints

Mary, Joseph, and the child Jesus during the flight into Egypt are depicted in a panel from Albrecht Dürer's Seven Sorrows of the Virgin (c. 1494–97).

Prayers and devotions to the Virgin Mary and the saints are a common part of Catholic life but are distinct from the worship of God.^[128] Explaining the intercession of saints, the Catechism states that the saints "... do not cease to intercede with the Father for us ... so by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."^[86][128] The Church holds Mary, as ever Virgin and Mother of God". in special regard. She is believed to have been conceived without original sin, and was assumed into heaven. These dogmas, focus of Roman Catholic Mariology, are considered infallible. She is honored with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church, because by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.^[129] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions, such as the Rosary, the Hail Mary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.^[127] Pilgrimages to Marian shrines such as Lourdes and Fátima are popular devotions. The Church celebrates several liturgical Marian feasts throughout the Church Year.^[130]

Church organization and community

Although the Church considers Jesus to be its ultimate spiritual head, as an earthly organization its spiritual head and leader is the pope.^[131] The pope governs from Vatican City in Rome, a sovereign state of which he is also the civil head of state.^[132] Each pope is elected for life by the College of Cardinals, a body composed of bishops and priests who have been granted the status of Cardinal by previous popes. The cardinals, who also serve as papal advisors, may select any male member of the Church to reign as pope, but if not already ordained as a bishop, such ordination must occur before the candidate can take papal office.^[133] The pope is assisted in the administration of the Church by the Roman Curia, or civil service. The Church community is governed according to formal regulations set out in the Code of Canon Law. The official language of the Church is Latin, however Italian is the working language of the Vatican administration.^[134]

Worldwide, the Catholic Church comprises a Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches. The Latin Church divides into jurisdictional areas known as dioceses, or eparchies in the Eastern Church. Each is headed by a bishop, patriarch or eparch, appointed by the pope. By 2007, including both dioceses and eparchies, there were 2,782 sees.^[135] Each diocese is divided into individual communities called parishes, which are staffed by one or more priests.^[136] The community is made up of ordained members and the laity. Members of religious orders such as nuns, friars and monks are considered lay members unless individually ordained as priests.^[137]

Ordained members and Holy Orders

Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.^[138][139] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).^[140] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. While all priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.^[141]

A priestly ordination at the abbey of Fontgombault in France

Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.^[142][143] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes exempted from this rule.^[144] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.^[145][146] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition where marriage is not allowed after ordination. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained.^[147] The Church tradition of abstinence traces its beginnings to both Jesus, who encouraged his apostles to be celibate if they were able to do so, and to St. Paul, who wrote of the advantages celibacy allowed a man in serving the Lord.^[148] Thus, from the Church's beginnings, clerical celibacy was "held in high esteem" and is considered a kind of spiritual marriage with Christ, a concept further popularized by the early Christian theologian Origen.^[149] Clerical celibacy began to be enforced in papal decretals beginning with Pope Siricius (d. 399).^[149] In 1074, mandatory celibacy of the clergy became canon law as part of pope Gregory VII's effort to eliminate several forms of medieval church corruption.^[150]

All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.^[151] They are designed by national bishops' conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.^[152] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.^[153] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.^[140]

Since the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.^[154] While some consider this to be evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,^[155] the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.^[156] Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.^[157] This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in Pope Paul VI's statement "If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities".^[157]

Marriage for Lay members

The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a body—all being important to enable the body to function.^[6] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices.^[158] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.^[140] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.^[159] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be granted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.^[160] Natural family planning is approved.^[161]

Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.^[162] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.^[162] Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.^[163] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.^[164]

Religious orders

Teresa of Ávila, shown in a 1615 painting by Peter Paul Rubens, was a Carmelite nun honored as a Doctor of the Church.

The majority of those wishing to enter the consecrated life join one of the religious institutes which are also referred to as monastic or religious orders. They follow a common rule such as the Rule of St Benedict and agree to live under the leadership of a superior.^[166][167] They usually live together in a community but individuals may be given permission to live as hermits, or to reside elsewhere, for example as a serving priest or chaplain.^[168] Examples of religious institutes include the Sisters of Charity, Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Cistercians, Marist Brothers, Paulist Fathers and the Society of Jesus, but there are many others.^[165] Tertiaries are laypersons who live according to the third rule of orders such as the Franciscans or Carmelites, either within a religious community or outside.^[162] Although all tertiaries make a public profession, participate in the good works of their order and can wear the habit, they are not bound by public vows unless they live in a religious community. The Church recognizes several other forms of consecrated life, including secular institutes, societies of apostolic life and consecrated widows and widowers.^[165] It also makes provision for the approval of new forms.^[169]

Membership

Membership of the Catholic Church is attained through Baptism.^[170] For those baptized as children, First Communion is a particular rite of passage when, following instruction, they are allowed to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist for the first time. Christians baptized outside of the Catholic Church or those never baptized may be received by participating in a formation program such as the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults.^[171][172] In all rites, after going through formation and making a profession of faith, candidates receive the sacraments of initiation at the Easter vigil on Holy Saturday.^[171]

A person can excommunicate themselves or be excommunicated by committing particularly grave sins.^[173][174] Examples include violating the seal of confession (committed when a priest discloses the sins heard in the sacrament of Penance), persisting in heresy, creating schism, becoming an apostate or having an abortion.^[175] Throwing away or retaining for a sacrilegious purpose consecrated sacramental bread or wine received during the Eucharist is considered an excommunicable offense.^[176] Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty because it prevents a person from validly receiving any Church sacrament. It can only be forgiven by the pope, the bishop of the diocese where the person resides, or priests authorized by him.^[177]

Catholic institutions, personnel and demographics

St. Theresa School in Coral Gables, FL is one of over 125,000 worldwide Catholic schools.

Church membership in 2007 was 1.131 billion people;^[181] a substantial increase over the 1970 figure of 654 million.^[182] It is the largest Christian church encompassing over half of all Christians, one sixth of the world's population and is the largest organized body of any world religion,^[4][183] and known for its ability to use its transnational ties and organizational strength to bring significant resources to needy situations.^[184] Although the number of practicing Catholics worldwide is not reliably known,^[185] membership is growing particularly in Africa and Asia.^[3]

Mother Teresa established homes for the dying in India to care for people who were otherwise left to die on the streets.

With a high number of adult baptisms, the Church is growing faster in Africa than anywhere else.^[188] Challenges faced include suppression of non-Islamic religious practices by Muslims in Sudan and a high rate of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa where the Church participates in efforts to help patients and reduce the spread of disease.^[189] Africa has three Catholic primary and secondary schools for every one parish reflecting the greater need for basic education there.^[190]

The Church in Asia is a significant minority among other religions yet its vibrance is evidenced by the large proportion of women religious, priests and parishes to total Catholic population.^[187] From 1975-2000, total Asian population grew by 61% with an Asian Catholic population increase of 104%.^[191] Challenges faced include oppression by communist countries like North Korea where it is forbidden, and China where all seminaries were closed and all priests expelled under the regime of Mao Zedong during the 1950s.^[192]

Oceania is overwhelmingly Christian with Catholic the majority denomination. There, the Church faces challenges in reaching indigenous populations where over 715 different languages are spoken.^[187] Of Catholics worldwide, 12% reside in Africa, 50% in the American continent, 10% are in Asia, 27% in Europe and 1% live in Oceania.^[193]

Cultural influence

Aztecs were practicing human sacrifice, which ended with the spread of Christianity to the region by Catholic missionaries.^[194]

St. Louis University, a Catholic institution and one of the oldest schools in the western United States is where the son of Sacajawea received an education.^[201]

The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art, at least up to the Protestant Reformation. It's patronage of artists, its consistent opposition to Byzantine iconoclasm and the creation of the Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance styles of art and architecture being particularly important contributions.^[207] Renaissance artists like Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were among a multitude of innovative artists sponsored by the Church.^[208] In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of musical notation, and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for the Catholic Church through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives. The Baroque style, which encompassed music, art and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church since it offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.^[209]

History

Roman Empire

The Catholic Church considers that it began on Pentecost when, according to scriptural accounts, the apostles received the Holy Spirit and emerged from hiding following the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message.^[210][211] According to historians, the apostles traveled to northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and Rome to found the first Christian communities,^{[210][212][213]} over 40 of which had been established by the year 100.^[212][213] At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday was being regarded as the primary day of worship^[214] because it was revered as the day of Jesus' Resurrection.^[215] From as early as the first century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.^{[11][216][217]}

Early Christians were martyred as entertainment in the Colosseum in Rome, a short distance from the Vatican Hill. Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1883.

The apostles convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem, in or around the year 50 to reconcile differences concerning the evangelization of Gentiles.^[12] Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early and persisted into the fifth century, there was broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.^[218] From the year 100 onward, teachers like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching in stark opposition to Gnosticism.^[219] The Roman Church retained the practice of meeting in ecumenical councils to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved.^[13] In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I, Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo.^[220]

Because early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to defer to Roman rulers as gods, they were frequently subject to persecution.^[221] This began under Nero in the first century and culminated in the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius, which was seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.^[222] In spite of these persecutions Christianity continued to spread and was eventually legalized in 313 under Constantine I's Edict of Milan.^[223]

In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the threat of Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed as a basic statement of Christian belief.^[224] Emperor Constantine I commissioned the first Basilica of St. Peter and several other sites of lasting importance to Christianity.^[225] By this time, the altar as the focal point of each church, the sign of the cross, and the liturgical calendar had been established.^[226] By 380, Christianity was the official religion of the Empire.^[227] In subsequent decades a series of Ecumenical councils codified critical elements of the Church's theology. The Council of Rome in 382 listed the accepted books of the Old and New Testament and in 391 this Biblical canon, was translated into the common language of Latin creating the Vulgate.^[228] The Councils of Ephesus in 431, and Chalcedon two decades later, clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation.^[229][230] These definitions sparked Monophysite disagreements which led to the first of the Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church.^[13]

Early Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Catholic faith competed with Arianism for the conversion of the barbarian tribes.^[231] The 496 conversion of