Roger I of Sicily receiving the keys of Palermo from the Muslims in 1071.

Norman conquest of Southern Italy

Muslim musicians at the court of Roger II.^[5].

Cultural interactions

Roger II of Sicily depicted on an Arabic-style mosaic. Cappella Palatina.

The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154, one of the most advanced ancient world maps.

Coronation mantel of Roger II. It bears an inscription in Arabic with the Egira date of 528 (1133-1134).

One of the greatest geographical treatises of the Middle Ages was written by the Andalusian Muhammad al-Idrisi for Roger, and entitled Kitab Rudjdjar ("The book of Roger").^[12] The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II was characterised by its multi-ethnic nature and religious tolerance.^[13] Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, Longobards and "native" Sicilians lived in harmony.^[14][15] He dreamed of establishing an Empire that would have encompassed Fatimid Egypt and the Crusader states in the Levant.^[16]

Although the language of the court was French (Langue d'oïl), all royal edicts were written in the language of the ethnicity they were addressed to, whether Latin, Greek, Arab, or Hebrew.^[17] Roger's royal mantel, used for his coronation (and also used for the coronation of Frederick II), bore an inscription in Arabic with the Egira date of 528 (1133-1134).

Islamic authors would marvel at the tolerance of the Norman kings:

They [the Muslims] were treated kindly, and they were protected, even against the Franks. Because of that, they had great love for king Roger.
Ibn al-Athir^[18]

Interactions continued with the succeeding Norman kings, for example under William II of Sicily, as attested by the Spanish-Arab geographer Ibn Jubair who landed in the island after returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1184. To his surprise, Ibn Jubair enjoyed a very warm reception by the Norman Christians. He was further surprised to find that even the Christians spoke Arabic, that the government officials were still largely Muslim, and that the heritage of some 130 previous years of Muslim rule of Sicily was still intact:^[12]

The attitude of the king is really extraordinary. His attitude towards the Muslims is perfect: he gives them employment, he choses his officers among them, and all, or almost all, keep their faith secret and can remain faithful to the faith of Islam. The king has full confidence in the Muslims and relies on them to handle many of his affairs, including the most important ones, to the point that the Great Intendant for cooking is a Muslim (...) His viziers and chamberlains are eunuchs, of which there are many, who are the members of his government and on whom he relies for his private affairs.
Ibn Jubair, Rihla.^[19]

Ibn Jubair also mentioned that many Christians in Palermo wore the Muslim dress, and many spoke Arabic. The Norman kings also continued to strike coins in Arabic with Hegira dates. The registers at the Royal court were written in Arabic.^[12] At one point, William II of Sicily is recorded to have said: ?Everyone of you should invoke the one he adores and of whom he follows the faith?.^[20]

Arab-Norman art

Arab-Norman art and architecture combined Occidental features (such as the Classical pillars and friezes) with typical Islamic decorations and calligraphy^[21].

Arab-Norman architecture

The new Norman rulers started to build various constructions in what is called the Arab-Norman style. They incorporated the best practices of Arab and Byzantine architecture into their own art.^[23]

The Church of Saint-John of the Hermits, was built in Palermo by Roger II around 1143-1148 in such a style. The church is notable for its brilliant red domes, which show clearly the persistence of Arab influences in Sicily at the time of its reconstruction in the 12th century. In his Diary of an Idle Woman in Sicily, F. Elliot described it as "... totally oriental... it would fit well in Baghdad or Damascus". The bell tower, with four orders of arcaded loggias, is instead a typical example of Gothic architecture.

"The Cappella Palatina, at Palermo, the most wonderful of Roger's churches, with Norman doors, Saracenic arches, Byzantine dome, and roof adorned with Arabic scripts, is perhaps the most striking product of the brilliant and mixed civilization over which the grandson of the Norman Trancred ruled" (EB1911).

The Monreale cathedral is generally described as "Arab-Norman". The outsides of the principal doorways and their pointed arches are magnificently enriched with carving and colored inlay, a curious combination of three styles - Norman-French, Byzantine and Arab.

Other examples of Arab-Norman architecture include the Palazzo dei Normanni?, or Castelbuono. This style of construction would persist until the 14th and the 15th century, exemplified by the use of the cupola.^[24]

Arab-Norman law

A significant influence on Norman law came from Islamic law and jurisprudence after the Normans had conquered the Emirate of Sicily and inherited its Islamic legal administration. In turn, the Normans introduced a number of Norman and Islamic legal concepts to England after the Norman conquest of England and may have laid the foundations for English common law.^[25]

Transmission to Europe

The points of contact between Europe and Islamic lands were multiple during the Middle Ages, with Sicilia playing a key role in the transmission of knowledge to Europe, although less important than that of Spain.^[26] The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicilia, and in Islamic Spain, particularly in Toledo (with Gerard of Cremone, 1114-1187, following the conquest of the city by the Spanish Christians in 1085). Many exchanges also occurred in the Levant due to the presence of the Crusaders there.^[27] For Europe, Sicily became a model and an example which was universally admired.^[28]

Aftermath

An example of Arab-Norman architecture, combining Gothic walls with Islamic domes: Saint-John of the Hermits built in Palermo by Roger II around 1143-1148. 1840 lithography.^[29]

In 1224 however, Frederick II, responding to religious uprisings in Sicily, expelled all Muslims from the island, transferring many to Lucera over the next two decades. In this controlled environment, they couldn't challenge royal authority and they benefited the crown in taxes and military service. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called Lucaera Saracenorum because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of Charles II of Naples. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery,^[30] with many finding asylum in Albania across the Adriatic Sea.^[31] Their abandoned mosques were destroyed or converted, and churches arose upon the ruins, including the cathedral S. Maria della Vittoria.

Even under Manfred (died in 1266) Islamic influence in Sicily persisted though, but it had almost disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century.^[26] Latin progressively replaced Arabic, however: the last Sicilian document in the Arabian language is dated to 1245.^[12]

See also

• Islam in Italy
• History of Islam in Southern Italy
• Italo-Normans
• Norman conquest of southern Italy

Notes

The outsides of the principal doorways and their pointed arches of the Monreale cathedral are magnificently enriched with carving and colored inlay, a curious combination of three styles - Norman-French, Byzantine and Arab.

Arabic painting made for the Norman kings (c. 1150) in the Palazzo dei Normanni.

References

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