The black population resulting from the slave trade during the centuries of Spanish domination of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata had a major role in Argentine history. Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it comprised up to fifty per cent of the population in some provinces and had a deep impact on national culture. In the nineteenth century, it declined sharply in number as a result of the combined effect of the flood of migration fueled by the 1853 Constitution and the high mortality rate for blacks; its apparent demise was more the result of a historical representation that was understood exterminated an empirical reality. In 2006 there was a pilot census on this issue in the neighborhoods of Montserrat, in Buenos Aires, and in Santa Rosa de Lima, in Santa Fe, revealing that 5% of the Argentine population admits having ancestors of African descent and that an additional 20% believes it could share this ancestry but is not sure. This research supports the claim by the Center for Genetic Studies of the School of Arts and Sciences of the Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) that an estimated 4.3% of the people living in suburban Buenos Aires have genetic markers of African descent. ^{[1] [2]}

Introduction and origin of Africans during colonization

From the title page of abolitionist Anthony Benezet's book Some Historical Account of Guinea, London, 1788

Until well into the nineteenth century, mining and agriculture accounted for the bulk of economic activity in America. Africans offered to the conquerors the advantage of having already been exposed by their geographical proximity to European diseases, and at the same time be tailored to the tropical climate of the colonies. The influx of African slaves began in the colonies of the Rio de la Plata in 1588, although these early arrivals were largely the work of smuggling, and trafficking flourished through the port of Buenos Aires when it gave the British the privilege of entering a share of slaves through it. The kings of Spain held, to provide slaves to the East Indies, contracts "seat" with various companies, mainly Spanish and Portuguese. In 1713 England, victorious in the War of Spanish Succession, was the monopoly of this trade. The last seat was agreed with the Royal Society of the Philippines in 1787. Until the 1784 ban blacks were measured and then marked with iron.

As to its origins before the sixteenth century slaves had arrived in relatively small numbers from the Cape Verde islands, but the majority of Africans who were introduced to Argentina came from the territories of the current Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea and the Republic of the Congo, belonging to the ethnic group that speaks the family of Bantu languages. Groups of Yoruba and Ewe, who were taken in large numbers to Brazil, immigration was more limited.

It is estimated that 60,000,000 Africans were shipped to America, of which only came alive 12,000,000, which entered mainly through the ports of Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Valparaiso and Rio de Janeiro.^[3]

The slaves went to work in agriculture, livestock, domestic work and to a lesser extent crafts. In urban areas, many slaves are engaged in handicrafts for sale, whose revenues earned their bosses. Buenos Aires neighborhood of San Telmo and Montserrat housed a large quantity of them, although most was to give the interior. The census conducted by Juan Jose Salcedo of Vértiz and in 1778 yielded results very high in the provinces of increased agricultural production: 54% in the province of Santiago del Estero, 52% in the province of Catamarca, 46% in Salta province, 44% in the province of Cordoba, 42% in the province of Tucuman, 24% in the province of Mendoza, 20% in the province of La Rioja, 16% in the province of San Juan, 13% in the province of Jujuy, 9% in the province of San Luis. In other provinces were an important part of the population, one of the slums of the city of Corrientes leads to today's name-Camba Cuá the Guarani kamba KUA, "cave of blacks."

As for the city of Buenos Aires the same census stood at 15,719 the number of Spaniards, the 1288 Indians and mestizos of 7268 and that of blacks and mulattos, while in 1810 there were 22,793 whites, blacks and mulattoes 9615 and only 150 Indians. The area most densely populated by blacks was located in the neighborhood of Montserrat, also called Barrio del Tambor, a few blocks from the current Congress.

The nations

Typically grouped into societies they called nations, some of them were Conga (in brown), Cabunda, African Argentina, Mozambique and so on.

The seats of them had in common places to be open and artificially flattened sand to the dance, and other enclosed space inside free. In some cases the rooms were carpeted and encortinadas through the shedding of some love. The nation had its king and queen, (which in fact they were democratically elected and had no cut) and had a throne that was lifted in the best place in the room, with its flag, that each nation had. He also had a podium or at least a podium, which among other things was used to get to the big dignitaries, including Juan Manuel de Rosas, wife and daughter, as they are viewed on a Boneo Martin box. At the headquarters were made talk shows and dances.

In turn companies are agglomerated in black neighborhoods, like the tripe or the drum. The first was one of the most important in Buenos Aires and was composed of 16 blocks in the neighborhood of Montserrat. Its name came from the fact that they consumed large quantities of it, the vendors who sold to the cry of tripe, tripe!. As for the name Tambor, the second was very common that some people always have a nation with that name, as it was his favorite instrument for their dances and songs.

Sometimes the slaves were purchased by individuals directly to the outside through a commissioner. For example, a letter sent from Rio de Janeiro said:

Africans in the formation of Argentina

Despite its reduced to slavery, testimonies of the time argued that in Buenos Aires and Montevideo slaves were treated with less cruelty than elsewhere.

Jose Antonio Wilde, in Buenos Aires from 70 years ago (1810-1880) said that:

This was not prevented from acknowledging however that:

The same opinion on the best treatment left us in their testimony that they were foreigners. For example, Alexander Gillespie, skipper of the British army during the British invasion, wrote in his memoirs that it was surprised how well they were treated in contrast with our planters and South America, and continued:

In 1801 the first black militias were organized and regulated in the Company of the Grenadier Brown and Brown as a military corps segregated from the rest.

During the days of the Invasion (1806) originated in an uprising of black slaves in Buenos Aires encouraged by the rise of abolitionism of slavery in England. They believed that the British expedition came mainly to give them their independence. But the English general, William Carr Beresford, looked no sympathy with this movement, the spokesman for the Creoles Aires, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón (to reorganize days after the reconquest), arguing that it threatened to ruin the country if not eliminated the illusion slaves, he demanded action on behalf of their estates and thus Beresford issued a camp in which he ordered that it be done to the slaves who understand what they are not change ( "is the shortcut to time," he wrote in July Pueyrredón 1806 in a letter to his stepfather in Cadiz). This measure would contribute to the defeat of the English, because it drove the slaves to fight against them.

Following the defeat of the English the Cabildo de Buenos Aires declared a main objective to "see how to banish slavery from our soil." In 1812 to Bernardo de Monteagudo was prevented from assuming a member of the First Triumvirate, due to its "questionable mother," referring to their African ancestors, paradoxically, was one of the objecting Bernardino Rivadavia, also a descendant of Africans. The Assembly XIII of the Year, the first constituent body of Argentina, ordered the release of bellies, but did not recognize the right to freedom of slaves exist. Many of them were part of militias and irregular troops that eventually would shape the Argentine Army, always in segregated squadrons. It could, if they were not complying with his master, ask to be sold and even find themselves a buyer.

Until the abolition of slavery in 1853, the Law Rescue forcing the owners of slaves to cede 40% of them for military service. Those who play full five years of service would obtain manumission, but that was rarely the case.

In the Northern Army commanded that José de San Martín and Manuel Belgrano the freed blacks made up to 65% of the troops. St. Martin came to the conclusion that there were 400,000 African-Argentines who could be recruited into armies homelands.

The armies of Independence recruited large numbers of slaves that existed in the territories conquered in the realists, offering them freedom in exchange. Many of them included the Battalion No. 8, which was part of the line of shock at the Battle of Chacabuco which recorded large numbers of casualties.

During the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas the black population of Buenos Aires rose to 30%. From that time dates the conclusion of the carnival as American, and the development of rhythms as candombe and milonga that would become an integral part of the folklore of Argentina. Rose is his great appreciation for the black population, and their frequent attendance at the candombes. Many of the gauchos who developed tasks in the field at the time were Afro-Argentinians.

Roses in 1837 passed a law expressly prohibiting the purchase in the sale of slaves in territory and in 1840 issued its statement of the total abolition of the slave trade by the Rio de la Plata in all its forms. The National Constitution of 1853 abolished slavery, but legally only with the reform of the Constitution in 1860 to abolish the settlement was complete freedom of slaves brought by their foreign masters to Argentine territory.

Domingo F. Sarmiento (1866-1872) happen to the two facts that the traditional history assigns to have caused the mass death of Afro-Argentinians: the War of Paraguay (1865-1870) and the yellow fever epidemic in Buenos Aires (1871). Sarmiento had expressed strong racist ideas and a clear position on the need to eliminate Afro-Argentine component of the population.

One of the key passages of Martin Fierro, written in 1872 and considered the national book of Argentina, consists of two encounters of the protagonist with black gauchos: the first is murdered with apparent disdain racist in the first part of the book, and with the other , Which happens to be son of the former, several years later, argues a famous payada.

After the abolition of slavery Argentinean lived in miserable conditions and discrimination. The proof is that of the fourteen schools in Buenos Aires in 1857 admitted only two black children, despite the fact that 15% of students that year were of color. Similarly, in 1829, in Cordoba could only entering high school two years by afro argentines, and the university had access only in 1853.

The Afro Argentinian began to publish newspapers and to organize for the common defense. One of the newspapers, "The Unionist", published in 1877 a statement of equal rights and justice for all people regardless of skin color. In one of his numbers read:

Other newspapers were "The African race, or black Democrat" and "proletarian" (both 1858). 1880s in the city there were about twenty of such newspapers. Because of this organizational activity, some investigators have considered the social movements that were Afro Argentine who introduced socialism and the idea of social justice in Argentine culture

Also entered politics. For example, Joseph M. Morales, an active colonel mitrista he became a deputy provincial constituent and then provincial senator in 1880, while Lieutenant Colonel Sunday Sosa became deputy twice and a constituent in 1853.

What happened to the black population?

To the bloody War of Paraguay (1865-1870) the drastic diminution of the Afro Argentine population has been attributed to them

Causes of reduction

Among the reasons expressed are:

• the heavy casualties caused by disputes: Blacks formed a disproportionate part of the Argentine army in the long and bloody War of Paraguay (1865-1870), in which the loss of lives on both sides were high. The official historiography maintains that this resulted in the disappearance of the black population, contends that while the genocide claims that the disproportionate recruitment was intentional.
• epidemics, especially of yellow fever in 1871: the traditional history holds that the epidemics had greater impact in areas where the poorest people lived, whereas the vision that sustains the existence of a genocide underlines the repressive mechanisms that enabled upper-class groups to leave the affected areas at the same time, forcing African Argentines to stay locked up and aggravate health conditions.
• particularly to Uruguay, where black people had historically been larger and had a more favorable political climate;
• massive immigration from Europe between 1850 and 1950, boosted by the Constitution of 1853, that multiply quickly the country's population. European immigrants have moved real and symbolic to blacks, according to the draft of the ruling class of Europeanization of Argentina.

Domingo F. Sarmiento defended racist ideas and was president when the events occurred that were attributed to the mass mortality of Afro Argentines

Domingo F. Sarmiento

Domingo F. Sarmiento , who was president during the great yellow fever epidemic and the War of Paraguay, events to which is assigned the extermination of the Afro Argentine, had a strong position racist and argued the need to eliminate the black population. In 1848 he wrote in his daily trip to the United States.

Slavery in the United States today is without question a possible solution; 4 million are black, and within 20 years will be 8. Rescue, who pays 1,000 million pesos worth? Libertos, Freedmen, what is done with such black hated by the white race? Slavery is a parasite that vegetation English colonization has left attached to leafy tree of freedom. Did not dare to uproot the tree when it podaron, while leaving the killed, and the parasite has grown and threatens the whole tree gleaned.

Years later the same Sarmiento wrote:

Expressions of Sarmiento is an example of the attitude taken by the Argentine State after slavery was abolished by amending the census classifications so there is no record of their presence, eliminating the categories of people "black" or "brown", to merge it with other groups under the banner of "Trigueña."

Some of the few researchers in the situation of Afro Argentinians the end of the nineteenth century, have argued that his alleged posting by the European immigrants is not compatible with the fact the high rate of masculinity of the latter. By contrast, the data strongly suggests a high degree of mixing between Europeans and Afro Argentinean.

We must also bear in mind that non-European immigrants settled in large numbers in the northern provinces, where the population was predominantly black.

In 1887 the percentage of black population was officially calculated at 1.8% of the total. From that moment will not be registered in the census. The State's position was again made explicit at the time of the National Census of 1895 when its leaders said:

Since then, and for nearly a century, in Argentina virtually no studies were conducted on the nature Afro Argentinians.

Beginning in the 1930s began to place large internal migrations to Buenos Aires and other urban centers to be integrated as factory workers in the industrialization process open then. Beginning in the 1940s, his presence was crowded and was disparagingly called for large sections of middle and upper class, "black heads."

Only in recent decades have begun to appear investigations both historical and sociological aimed at the black population, with results that have been received with surprise and in some cases rejected by large segments.

In recent years, have multiplied the studies, activities and organizations related to population Afro Argentine. The overall result indicates a presence both physically and culturally far greater than that posed formally.

Afro Argentine woman

Afro Argentine upper middle class women

Slavery was officially abolished in Argentina in 1813, however, many blacks were still held as slaves, and were only granted their freedom by fighting in Argentina?s wars. For this reason, black men served very disportionately in the war against Spain for Argentina?s independence. When you look at the huge number of black men killed in the war compared to the white Argentines, you can come to the conclusion that these black men were being used as a ?cannon fodder?, and were deliberately being placed on the frontlines. In fact, when you observe Argentina?s history, their government has purposely sent as many blacks as possible to battle in dangerous military service. Not to mention their mission of ?killing two birds with one stone? by sending the Afro Argentines to war against the Amerindians (Indians), who the white Argentines despised as well.

While the black Argentine men were getting killed in warfare, black Argentine women were without mates. So these black women began to produce mix children with the European immigrants, especially Italian immigrants, who were reportedly attracted to the body odor of black women. This mixing created another problem for the Afro Argentines though, since having an African heritage wasn?t considered proper, and was even seen as a burden to many mulattos. It is for this reason that many light mulattos passed for white or trigueño (a dark skin white person), and were even careful not to associate themselves with the Afro Argentine community. With the obsession of the Argentines to become a white nation, ?passing? became popular for the mulattos in Argentina. In fact, it was very rare to find a mulatto who had the chance to pass, not utilize this advantage.

Ironically for the Afro Argentines, a free black in Argentina had less chance for survival than an enslaved black Argentine did. An enslaved black was seen as an investment so he or she was taken good care for; on the other hand free blacks were left with menial jobs for low pay, or became beggars in the streets. For this reason the poverty in the Afro Argentine community was terrible. In fact, a large portion of blacks died from disease, because they couldn?t afford proper medical care. Many Afro Argentines were decimated by frequent plagues like yellow fever. So when you put these factors together with the racist immigration policies of the Argentine government, you have the reasons for the decline in the Afro Argentine community.

African influence in Argentine culture

Tango

The exact origins of tango?both the dance and the word itself?are lost in myth and an unrecorded history. The generally accepted theory is that in the mid-1800s, African slaves were brought to Argentina and began to influence the local culture. The word "tango" may be straightforwardly African in origin, meaning "closed place" or "reserved ground." Or it may derive from Portuguese (and from the Latin verb tanguere, to touch) and was picked up by Africans on the slave ships.

Gabino Ezeiza, a famous payador

Argentina was undergoing a massive immigration during the later part of the 1800s and early 1900s. In 1869, Buenos Aires had a population of 180,000. By 1914, its population was 1.5 million.

Painting by Pedro Figari

Most immigrants were single men hoping to earn their fortunes in this newly expanding country. They were typically poor and desperate, hoping to make enough money to return to Europe or bring their families to Argentina. The evolution of tango reflects their profound sense of loss and longing for the people and places they left behind.

Most likely the tango was born in African-Argentine dance venues attended by compadritos, young men, mostly native born and poor, who liked to dress in slouch hats, loosely tied neckerchiefs and high-heeled boots with knives tucked casually into their belts. The compadritos took the tango back to the Corrales Viejos?the slaughterhouse district of Buenos Aires?and introduced it in various low-life establishments where dancing took place: bars, dance halls and brothels. It was here that the African rhythms met the Argentine milonga music (a fast-paced polka) and soon new steps were invented and took hold.

Poems by Afro-Argentinians

In the midst of my people I am isolated,

because where my crib is Meciar

Dumped with momentum on his side,

a breed of outcasts has been

since that race I belong.

And we have no homeland, if it exists,

We knew from her womb conscribir;

the charges are sad for a man.

And if we are right one,

must be the right to die.

(1869) Horacio Mendizabal.

Oh damn thousand times

you are white without faith, your cruel memory

Baldone is eternal for your story.

(1878) Casilda Thompson.

There is no longer bottle Negroes,

or black that sells fruit,

much less a fisherman;

because those Neapolitans

son until pastry is

and we want to remove

the craft of bleach.

color There is no longer a servant of my color

Bachicha Todito because they are;

soon by Jesus Christ!

zamba dance with the drum.

Anonymous poet, probably from the late nineteenth century.

Colonial racial categories

During the colony, the Spanish authorities described as different "varieties" from "crossing" include those resulting from the union of black African people with people of other ethnic origins. The names used were:

• Hexadecaroon: sixth-generation black ancestry.
• Mulatto: black/white mixed.
• Tercerón: white/mulatto mixed.
• Quadroon: one-quarter black ancestry/one-quarter white ancestry.
• Quinterón: fifth-generation black ancestry/one parent who is an octoroon and one white parent.
• Zambo: black/Amerindian mixed.
• Zambo Prieto: black/Amerindian mixed with predominant black.

Socially, possess a "crossing" in the family tree was a macula. These classifications, and other common in the colonial culture, as "mestizo" or cholo, were used to stigmatize people and prevent their social advancement. In some cases, well-known historical personalities were found in this situation, as Bernardo de Monteagudo and Bernardino Rivadavia, were described as "mulatto".

Racism in Argentina related to skin tone

In Argentina, as in other countries of America, racism-related skin tone or the people of African origin dates back to the days of colonial rule. In the caste system imposed by Spain, the descendants of people from black Africa occupied a place still lower than the descendants of persons belonging to aboriginal peoples.

The racist colonial went some way to the Argentine culture, as shown by some racist comments of the president Domingo F. Sarmiento. During the mid-nineteenth century, were common to the death duels between gauchos and mestizos afroargentinos. In Argentine literature, these disputes are represented with a racist tinge in a famous passage from the book by José Hernández, Martin Fierro (The way), published in 1870, in which the main character is a bat with a gaucho black mourning after insulting his girlfriend and insult to the following verse:

Africa Vive's leader Maria Lamadrid who is on a mission to fight the discrimination in Argentina

Recently, there has been a growing interest into Argentina?s African heritage, as well as their African descended community. A group of Afro-Argentineans called ?Africa Vive? (Africa lives), led by Maria Lamadrid, have emerged on a mission to fight discrimination, as well as raise awareness of the plight of the Afro Argentinean community and their place in Argentina?s history. Maria Lamadrid, who founded Africa Vive in the late 90?s, has helped to bring the racism and discrimination in Argentina to the forefront. She struggled in her youth to receive an education since she was both black and poor. For this reason, she ended up cleaning other people?s houses to make a living, like other poor women in Argentina do. Maria has seen the racism up close and personal there every day. In fact, a few years ago when Maria wanted to travel to Panama, she went to the immigration counter with her new Argentine passport, when the immigration officer saw the passport, the officer began to scream that ?it is a fake?, and then this officer detained her. The only reason they could give for detaining her is that ?there aren?t any blacks in Argentina.?^[6]

Although Maria encounters racism as well as discrimination on a daily basis in her country, it has done nothing but inspire her, as well as her Africa Vive foundation to push forward towards equality. In fact, in 1999, Africa Vive organized a very well publicized conference against discrimination at the University of Buenos Aires. Africa Vive also was invited to attend the Durban UN Conference on Racism. At this conference, they made a presentation about the socio-economic situation of the Afro-Argentines, such as the high amount of unemployment in the Afro Argentine community, as well as the problem with naturalization that blacks receive because of racist immigration policies.

Argentina has been a country that not only denies having an Afro-descended community, but has done everything to erase Africa from its past. The Afro-Argentine community currently faces issues of high unemployment, racist immigration policies, as well as denial about their existence; however, there is hope for this country? black people. In 2001, Afro-descended groups like ?Grupo Cultural Afro?, "SOS Racismo", and of course "Africa Vive" came together to convince a national deputy to organize a ceremony in memory of the black soldiers who died fighting (as a ?cannon fodder? in many cases) for Argentina?s independence. In this ceremony, the national deputy spoke in honor of the great fallen soldiers, in addition to awarding degrees to the heads of several black organizations. For Argentina to have an event that not only acknowledges the African contributions to the country, but also puts the Afro-Argentines in the spotlight, is truly a very remarkable thing. This event was certainly a huge step for Afro-Argentines toward reaching their goal for equality, however, they still have many more miles to walk, but there is certainly more hope for the Afro-Argentine Community to reach this goal than there has been in a very long time.

Organizations

On October 9, 2006, created the Forum of African descent and Africans in Argentina, with the aim of promoting social and cultural pluralism and the fight against discrimination of a population in the country to reach the two million inhabitants.

The National Institute to Combat Discrimination (INADI) is the public body responsible for combating discrimination and racism.

See also

• Afro-Latin American
• List of Famous Afro-Latinos

References

External links

• Afros All Over
• Blacks in Argentina: Disappearing Acts
• In Buenos Aires, Researchers Exhume Long-Unclaimed African Roots
• Blacks in Argentina -- officially a few, but maybe a million

es:Población negra en Argentina ja:???????????? pt:População negra da Argentina

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