Abhinavagupta (approx. 950 - 1020 AD^[1][2]) was one of India's greatest philosophers, mystics and aestheticians. He was also considered an important musician, poet, dramatist, exeget, theologian, and logician^[3][4] - a polymathic personality who exercised strong influences in the Indian culture.^[5][6]

He was born in the Valley of Kashmir^[7] in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen (or more) teachers and gurus.^[8] In his long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is Tantr?loka, an encyclopedic treatise on all the philosophical and practical aspects of Trika and Kaula (known today as Kashmir Shaivism). Another one of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabh?rat? commentary of N??ya??stra of Bharata Muni.^[9]

A genius of his time

It is reported that "Abhinavagupta" was not his real name, rather a title he earned from his master, carrying a meaning of "competence and authoritativeness".^[10][11] In his analysis, Jayaratha (1150-1200 AD) ^[12] - who was Abhinavagupta's most important commentator - also reveals three more meanings: "being ever vigilant", "being present everywhere" and "protected by praises".^[13] Raniero Gnoli, the only Sanskrit scholar who completed a translation of Tantr?loka in a European language, mentions that "Abhinavagupta" also means "new",^[14] as a reference to the ever-new creative force of his mystical experience.

From Jayaratha, we learn that Abhinavagupta was in possession of all the six qualities required for the recipients of the tremendous level of ?aktip?ta, as described in the sacred texts (?r?p?rva??stra)^[15] : an unflinching faith in God, realization of mantras, control over objective principles (referring to the 36 tattvas), successful conclusion of all the activities undertaken, poetic creativity and spontaneous knowledge of all disciplines. ^[16]

Abhinavagupta's creation is well equilibrated between the branches of the triad (Trika) will(icch?) - knowledge(jñ?na) - action(kriy?), respectively, devotional songs, academical/philosophical works^[17] and works describing ritual/yogic practices.^[18]

As an author he is considered a systematizer of the philosophical thought. He reconstructed, rationalized and orchestrated the philosophical knowledge into a more coherent form,^[19] assessing all the available sources of his time, not unlike a modern scientific researcher of Indology.

Various contemporary scholars have characterized Abhinavagupta as a "brilliant scholar and saint",^[20] "the pinnacle of the development of Kasmir ?aivism"^[21] and "in possession of yogic realization".^[22]

Social background, family and disciples

"Magical" birth

The term by which Abhinavagupta himself defines his origin is "yogin?bh?" - "born of a yogin?".^[23][24] In Kashmir Shaivism and especially in Kaula it is considered that a progeny of parents "established in the divine essence of Bhairava",^[25] is endowed with exceptional spiritual and intellectual prowess. Such a child is supposed to be "the depository of knowledge", who "even as a child in the womb, has the form of Shiva",^[26] to enumerate but a few of the classical attributes of his kind.

Parents

Abhinagavupta was born into a brahmin family noted for their deep devotion towards God and an inclination for intellectual pursuits.

His mother, Vimal? (Vimalakal?) died when Abhinavagupta was just two years old^[27][28]; as a consequence of losing his mother, of whom he was reportedly very attached^[29], he grew more distant from the world and all the more focused only on the spiritual endeavor.

The father, Narasi?hagupta, after his wife's death favored an ascetic lifestyle, while raising his three children. He had a cultivated mind and a heart "outstandingly adorned with devotion to Mahesvara (Shiva)"^[30] (in Abhinavagupta's own words). He was Abhinavagupta's first teacher, instructing him in grammar, logic and literature.^[31]

Family

Abhinavagupta had a brother and a sister. The brother, Manoratha, was a well versed devotee of Shiva. ^[32] His sister, Amb? (probable name, according to Navjivan Rastorgi), devoted herself to worship after the death of her husband in late life.

His cousin Kar?a demonstrated even from his youth that he grasped the essence of ?aivism and was detached of the world. His wife was presumably Abhinavagupta's older sister Amb?,^[33] who looked with reverence upon her illustrious brother. Amb? and Kar?a had a son, Yoge?varidatta, who was precociously talented in yoga^[34] (yoge?var implies the meaning of "lord of yoga").

Abhinavagupta also mentions his disciple R?madeva as faithfully devoted to scriptural study and serving his master.^[35] Another cousin was K?ema, possibly the same as Abhinavagupta's illustrious disciple K?emar?ja. Mandra, a childhood friend of Kar?a, was their host in a suburban residence; he was not only rich and in possession of a pleasing personality, but also equally learned.^[36] And last but not least, Vatasik?, Mandras aunt, got a special mention from Abhinavagupta for caring for him with exceptional dedication and concern; to express his gratitude, Abhinavagupta declared that Vatasik? deserved the credit for the successful completion of his work.^[37] The emerging picture here is that Abhinavagupta lived in a nurturing and protected environment, where his creative energies got all the support they required. Everyone around him was filled with spiritual fervor and had taken Abhinavagupta as their spiritual master. Such a supporting group of family and friends was equally necessary as his personal qualities of genius, in order to complete a work of the magnitude of Tantr?loka.

Ancestors

By Abhinavagupta's own account, his most remote known ancestor was called Atrigupta, born in Madhyade?a (probably modern Kannauj), in India and traveled to Kashmir at the request of the king Lalit?ditya,^[38][39] around year 740 CE .^[40]

Masters

Abhinavagupta is famous for his voracious thirst of knowledge. In order to study he took many teachers (as many as 15, or even more!),^[41] both mystical philosophers and scholars. He approached Vai??avas, Buddhists, ?iddh?nta ?aivists and the Trika scholars.

Amongst the most prominent of his teachers he enumerates four. V?man?tha instructed him in dualistic ?aivism,^[42] Bh?tir?ja in the dualist-cum-nondualistic school. Besides being the teacher of the famous Abhinavagupta, Bh?tir?ja was also the father of two eminent scholars.^[43]

Lak?mas?agupta, a direct disciple of Som?nanda, in the lineage of Trayambaka, was highly respected by Abhinavagupta and taught him all the schools of monistic thought : Krama, Trika and Pratyabhijña (except Kula).^[44]

?ambhun?tha taught him the fourth school (Ardha-trayambaka). This school is in fact Kaula, and it was emanated from Trayambakas daughter. For Abhinavagupta, ?ambhun?tha was the most admired guru. Describing the greatness of his master, he compared ?ambhun?tha with the Sun, in his power to dispel ignorance from the heart, and, in another place, with "the Moon shining over the ocean of Trika knowledge".^[45] Abhinavagupta received Kaula initiation through ?ambhun?thas wife (acting as a d?t? or conduit). This initiation is transmitted by a special kind of sexual act where the whole energy is transmuted and sublimated into the heart and finally into consciousness. Such a method is difficult but very rapid and is reserved for those who shed their mental limitations and are pure. It was ?ambhun?tha who requested of him to write Tantr?loka. As guru, he had a profound influence in the structure of Tantr?loka^[46] and in the life of its creator, Abhinavagupta.^[47] As many as twelve more of his principal teachers are enumerated by name but without details.^[48] It is believed that Abhinavagupta had more secondary teachers. Even more, during his life he had accumulated a large number of texts from which he quoted in his magnum opus, in his desire to create a synthetic, all inclusive system, where the differences of different scriptures be resolved by integration into a superior perspective.

Lifestyle

Abhinavagupta remained unmarried all his life,^[49] yet we know him to be an adept of Kaula and as such, he was presumably not sexually abstinent.

He studied assiduously at least until the age of 30 or 35,^[50] and in order to do that he travelled, but mostly inside Kashmir.^[51]

By his own testimony, he had attained spiritual liberation through his Kaula practice, which is based on trantric sexuality, under the guidance of his most admired master, ?ambhun?tha.^[52]

He lived in his home (functioning as an ashram) with his family members and disciples^[53] and he did not become a wondering monk, nor did he take on the regular duties of the brahmin caste.

Thus, Abhinavagupta lived out his life as a writer and a teacher.^[54] His personality was a living realization of his vision.^[55]

In an epoch pen-painting he is depicted seated in Virasana, surrounded by devoted disciples and family, performing a kind of trance inducing music at veena while dictating verses of Tantr?loka to one of his attendees - behind him two d?t? (women yogi) waiting on him.

A legend about the moment of his death (placed somewhere between 1015 and 1025 depending on the source), says that he took with him 1200 disciples and marched off to a cave (the Bhairava Cave, an actual place known to this day), reciting his poem Bhairava-stava, a devotional work. They were never to be seen again, supposedly translating together in the spiritual world.^[56]

Works

Abhinavagupta's works fall into multiple sections: manuals of religious ritual, devotional songs, philosophical works and philosophy of aesthetics. Here are enumerated most of his works.^[57] Bold type faced titles represent the most important ones.

Religious works

Tantraloka

His most important work was Tantr?loka, "Light on Tantra", a synthesis of all the Trika system^[58]. Its only complete translation in a European language - Italian - is credited to Raniero Gnoli, now at its second edition^[59]. The esoteric chapter 29 on the Kaula ritual was translated in English together with Jayarathas commentary by John R. Dupuche, Rev. Dr.^[60] A complex study on the context, authors, contents and references of Tantr?loka was published by Navjivan Rastogi, Prof. of the Lucknow University^[61]. Another important text was the commentary on Par?tr??ik?, Par?tr??ik?vivara?a, detailing the signification of the phonematic energies and their two sequential ordering systems, M?t?k? and M?lin?, was the last great translation project of Jaideva Singh^[62].

Tantrasara

Tantras?ra - "Essence of Tantra" is a summarized version, in prose, of Tantr?loka, which was once more summarized in Tantroccaya, and finally presented in a very short summary form under the name of Tantrava?adh?nik? - the "Seed of Tantra".

P?rvapañcik? was a commentary of P?rvatantra, alias M?lin?vijaya Tantra, lost to this day. M?lin?vijay?-varttika - "Commentary on M?lin?vijaya" is a versified commentary on M?lin?vijaya Tantras first verse. Kramakeli - "Krama's Play" was a commentary of Kramastotra, now lost. Bhagavadg?t?rtha-sa?graha which translates "Commentary on Bhagavad Gita" has now an English translation by Boris Marjanovic^[63]. Other religious works are: Par?tr??ik?-laghuv?tti - "A Short Commentary on Par?tr??ik?", Paryantapañc???k? - "Fifty Verses on the Ultimate Reality", Rahasyapañcada?ik? - "Fifteen Verses on the Mystical Doctrine", Laghv? prakriy? - "Short Ceremony", Dev?stotravivara?a - "Commentary on the Hymn to Devi" and Param?rthas?ra - "Essence of the Supreme Reality".

Devotional hymns

Abhinavagupta has composed a number of devotional poems, most of which have been translated into French by Lilian Silburn^[64] : Bodhapañcada?ik? - "Fifteen Verses on Consciousness", Param?rthacarc? - "Discussion on the Supreme Reality", Anubhavanivedana - "Tribute of the Inner Experience" Anuttar???ik? - "Eight Verses on Anuttara", Krama-stotra - an hymn, different from the fundamental text of the Krama school, Bhairava-stava - "Hymn to Bhairava", Dehasthadevat?cakra-stotra - "Hymn to the Wheel of Divinities that Live in the Body", Param?rthadv?da?ik? - "Twelve Verses on the Supreme Reality" and Mahopade?a-vi??atik? - "Twenty Verses on the Great Teaching". Another poem ?iva?aktyavin?bh?va-stotra - "Hymn on the Inseparability of Shiva and Shakti" was lost.

Philosophical works

One of the most important works of Anhinavagupta is ??varapratyabhijñ?-vimar?ini - "Commentary to the Verses on the Recognition of the Lord" and ??varapratyabhijñ?-viv?ti-vimar?ini - commentary on the explanation of ??varapratyabhijñ?. This treatise is fundamental in the transmission of the Pratyabhijña school (the branch of Kashmir Shaivism based on direct recognition of the Lord) to our days. Another commentary on a Pratyabhijña work - ?ivad??ty?-locana ("Light on ?ivad???i") is now lost. Another lost commentary is Pad?rthaprave?a-nir?aya-??k? and Prak?r?kavivara?a - "Comment on the Notebook" - referring to the third chapter of V?kyapad?ya of Bhartrihari. Two more philosophical texts of Abhinavagupta are Kath?mukha-tilaka - "Ornament of the Face of Discourses" and Bhedav?da-vid?ra?a - "Confruntation of the Dualist Thesis".

Poetical and dramatic works

Abhinavaguptas most important work on the philosophy of art is Abhinavabh?rat? - a long and complex commentary on Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni. This work has been one of the most important factors contributing to Abhinavagupta's fame up until present day. His most important contribution was that to the theory of rasa (aesthetic savor). Other poetical works include: Gha?a-karpara-kulaka-viv?ti, a commentary on "Gha?akarpara" of Kalidasa; K?vyakau?ukavivara?a, a "Commentary to the Wonder of Poetry" (a work of Bha??a Tauta), now lost; and Dhvany?lokalocana, "Illustration of Dhvany?loka", which is a famous work of Anandavardhana.

References

External links

• Muktabodha Online Library - containing many of Abhinavagupta's works in Sanskrit including Tantr?loka
• GRETIL: a collection of Abhinavagupta's works in original, also containing other Kashmir Shaivism texts
• Four biographical articles on Abhinavagupta by Swami Lakshman Joo, Prof. K. N. Dhar, R. K. Jalali and Geetika Kaw Kher
• Another Bibliography of Abhinavagupta by "The New Yoga"
• Aspects of Abhinavagupta's Theory of Scripture by David Peter Lawrence
• Abhinavagupta and the Synthesis of Indian Culture Essays, debates, multimedia illustrations in English, French, Spanish, Italian, German
• Towards an integral appreciation of Abhinavagupta's aesthetics of Rasa (PDF), by Sunthar Visuvalingam

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